Verbalization, Categorization, and Evaluation of Fundamental Surgical Skills: An Expert Consensus in Open Head and Neck Surgery.

Objective: This study aimed to verbalize fundamental surgical skills required for open head and neck surgery (OHNS), to organize them by categorization, and to establish a consensus among surgeons regarding the importance and difficulty of each skill. Summary Background Data: Improvement of fundamental surgical skills is the core of surgical education; however, surgical skills are not yet organized, and consensus in any surgical field remains uncertain. Methods: Fundamental surgical skills during OHNS were collected from surgical textbooks, real surgeries, and expert interviews. The items were analyzed to calculate the frequency of words and were categorized by 2 expert surgeons. After consensus on the importance and difficulty of each item was established by 15 expert surgeons using a Delphi survey, principal component (PC) analysis was performed to integrate importance and difficulty into a single parameter. Results: Sixty skills were verbalized and categorized into 7 categories: "skin flap elevation (n = 6)," "vessel management (n = 9)," "nerve preservation (n = 8)," "instrument handling (n = 11)," "counter traction (n = 7)," "tissue exposure (n = 9)," and "flow and planning (n = 10)." In the Delphi survey, expert consensus was established after 2 voting rounds (Cronbach's α ≥ 0.80). The "counter traction" and "flow and planning" categories had high PC scores, which indicate priority in surgical education. Conclusion: Fundamental OHNS skills were verbalized, categorized, and evaluated via expert consensus. Assessment of surgeons' skills by the structured items hereby developed will help standardize the quality of OHNS and improve patient outcomes.

Development of proficiency-based knot-tying and suturing curriculum for otolaryngology residents: A pilot study.

OBJECTIVE: Basic surgical skills such as knot-tying and suturing are important for all otolaryngologists, regardless of subspecialty. The present study was undertaken in order to assess basic surgical techniques such as knot-tying and suturing required for novice otolaryngology residents with taking the variety of subspecialties into consideration, and evaluate the impact of a proficiency-based training curriculum based on these techniques. METHODS: A prospective study was performed for developing of proficiency-based knot-tying and suturing curriculum for otolaryngology residents in the third post-graduate year (PGY-3). The proficiency-based training curriculum was developed based on the tasks selected by RAND/UCLA method with expert panel, which is an iterative and anonymous survey used to establish consensus among participants. Expert panelists were selected from various divisions to reflect variety of their subspecialties. PGY-3 residents trained with the developed curriculum that included proctored pre-test, self-training to proficiency, and proctored post-test. Visual analogue scale (VAS) of trainees' overall competence in the operating room was self-assessed by each resident, before and after completing the training curriculum. RESULTS: Nine PGY-3 residents were enrolled as trainees. Eleven experts chosen as panelists had various subspecialty, including 2 from otology, 2 from rhinology, 2 from laryngology, 2 from head and neck surgery, and 3 from general otolaryngology. Seven tasks were selected from RAND/UCLA method and used to develop the curriculum. Trainee scores at pre-test were significantly lower than expert scores for all 7 tasks (p < 0.01) and each coefficient of variation of trainee score was larger than that of expert score (p < 0.05), supporting construct validity. The mean of composite scores between pre-test and post-test had statistical significance (68.6 ± 11.6 vs 95.9 ± 3.6, p < 0.01), documenting substantial improvement after training. Self-assessment VAS was also improved pre- to post-training (1.2 ± 0.9 vs 4.5 ± 1.4, p < 0.01). A follow-up questionnaire showed that trainees felt the educational curriculum to be beneficial. CONCLUSION: In the present study, seven basic technical skills were selected using the RAND/UCLA method and used to create a proficiency-based training curriculum. Our results indicate that this curriculum significantly improves proficiency of basic surgical skills of junior otolaryngology residents.

Elevated Na+/H+ exchanger-1 expression enhances the metastatic collective migration of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma cells.

Cancer cells can migrate as collectives during invasion and/or metastasis; however, the precise molecular mechanisms of this form of migration are less clear compared with single cell migration following epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Elevated Na+/H+ exchanger1 (NHE1) expression has been suggested to have malignant roles in a number of cancer cell lines and in vivo tumor models. Furthermore, a metastatic human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) cell line (SASL1m) that was isolated based on its increased metastatic potential also exhibited higher NHE1 expression than its parental line SAS. Time-lapse video recordings indicated that both cell lines migrate as collectives, although with different features, e.g., SASL1m was much more active and changed the direction of migration more frequently than SAS cells, whereas locomotive activities were comparable. SASL1m cells also exhibited higher invasive activity than SAS in Matrigel invasion assays. shRNA-mediated NHE1 knockdown in SASL1m led to reduced locomotive and invasive activities, suggesting a critical role for NHE1 in the collective migration of SASL1m cells. SASL1m cells also exhibited a higher metastatic rate than SAS cells in a mouse lymph node metastasis model, while NHE1 knockdown suppressed in vivo SASL1m metastasis. Finally, elevated NHE1 expression was observed in human HNSCC tissue, and Cariporide, a specific NHE1 inhibitor, reduced the invasive activity of SASL1m cells, implying NHE1 could be a target for anti-invasion/metastasis therapy.

Anatomic Invasive Depth Predicts Delayed Cervical Lymph Node Metastasis of Tongue Squamous Cell Carcinoma.

Delayed cervical lymph node metastasis (CLNM) is the most negative prognostic factor of tongue squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). This study analyzed the relationship between clinicopathologic factors, including anatomic invasive depth (AID), and CLNM. A total of 212 patients with clinically node-negative (cN0) tongue SCC who had undergone partial glossectomy through the mouth were eligible for this retrospective study. The deepest portions where tongue SCC cells invaded as determined by microscopic analyses were classified into 5 categories, including epithelial and submucosal tissue, lateral extrinsic tongue muscle (ETM), intrinsic tongue muscles (ITM), paralingual and sublingual spaces, and medial ETM according to AID. We examined the relationship between clinicopathologic factors including AID and delayed CLNM. Multivariate analysis demonstrated that AID was an independent predictive factor for delayed CLNM (P=0.0022; odds ratio=7.1). Deeper invasion than ITM, including ITM, paralingual and sublingual spaces, and medial ETM, had high sensitivity and negative predictive value for delayed CLNM (94.4% and 95.7%, respectively). Precise elucidation of AID may be useful for the preoperative decision for performing elective neck dissection. None of 11 patients in whom the deepest portion where tumor invaded to lateral ETM (according to AID) showed delayed CLNM, although tongue SCC T4a tumor is defined by the presence of invasion of cancer cells to ETM. Tumors with invasion to lateral ETM might have to be excluded from the pathologic T4a category.

Programmed death ligand-1 expression is associated with poor disease free survival in salivary gland carcinomas.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The immune checkpoint ligand programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) is expressed in various carcinomas and allows carcinoma cells to elude the immune system. PD-L1 expression is associated with the response to anti-programmed death 1 (PD-1)/PD-L1 drugs. This study aimed to clarify the relationship between PD-L1 expression and clinicopathological factors of salivary gland carcinomas (SGCs) and identify its clinical significance. METHODS: PD-L1 expression was examined by immunohistochemical analysis using a tissue microarray comprised of 219 surgically resected SGC specimens. Detailed clinicopathological factors, including patient outcome, were available for all cases. RESULTS: A case showing complete membranous expression of PD-L1 in more than 1% of whole carcinoma cells was considered positive by ROC analysis. A total of 50 (22.8%) patients showed PD-L1 expression in SGC cells. Positive PD-L1 expression was significantly associated with poor disease free survival (P < 0.001) and overall survival (P < 0.001). Multivariate analysis revealed that positive PD-L1 expression was one of the independent predictors for poor disease free survival (hazard ratio = 2.287, 95% confidence interval = 1.24-4.15; P = 0.008). CONCLUSIONS: Positive PD-L1 expression was significantly associated with poor disease free survival of SGCs, suggesting that antibody therapies targeting PD-1/PD-L1 may have potential application in SGCs. J. Surg. Oncol. 2016;114:36-43. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

[A retrospective study on parotid carcinoma].

We retrospectively analyzed the clinicopathological factors affecting survival in patients with previously untreated parotid carcinoma. The subjects were 50 patients treated in our department from 1987 through 2011. The T stage was T1, T2, T3, and T4 in 4 patients, 11 patients, 9 patients, and 26 patients, respectively. The N stage was N0, N1, and N2 in 36 patients, 3 patients, and 11 patients, respectively. The clinical stage was I, II, III, and IV in 4 patients, 10 patients, 7 patients, and 29 patients, respectively. Histopathologically, eleven tumor types were observed; mucoepidermoid carcinoma was the most common. The overall 5-year survival rate was 72.1%, and the disease-specific 5-year survival rate was 74.0% in 42 patients who received radical surgery. Twelve patients relapsed; the site of relapse was the primary site alone in 2, in the neck alone in 3 patients, in the neck with distant metastases in 2 patients, and in distant metastatic site (s) alone in 5 patients. Univariate analysis showed that significant prognostic factors for overall survival rates were the T stage, cervical lymph node metastasis, clinical stage, grade, facial nerve palsy, and tumor size. We concluded that patients at high risk of recurrence should receive adjuvant therapy to improve the therapeutic outcomes.

Incidence of long-term ipsilateral and contralateral ototoxicity following radiotherapy for nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the long-term adverse effects of radiotherapy on the ears in patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), we investigated ipsilateral and contralateral ototoxicities in the external, middle, and inner ear. METHODS: The records of 48 ears in 24 radiotherapy-treated NPC patients were retrospectively analyzed. Radiotherapy doses varied between 60 and 70 Gy in 2-Gy fractions at 5 fractions/week. Ototoxicities were identified by otoscope and pure-tone audiograms conducted at 2-3 month intervals for ≥12 months. The relationship between radiation dosage and sensorineural threshold deterioration was statistically compared using the Mann-Whitney U-test. RESULTS: Post-radiotherapy, 50% of all ears (3 of 6) that developed severe otitis externa were on the contralateral side. There was a post-radiotherapy increase in contralateral otitis media with effusion (OME) (1-7 ears), but a decrease in ipsilateral cases (16-12 ears), with 2 ears on either side subsequently developing chronic otitis media (COM). All ears that showed sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) before radiotherapy exhibited a further threshold deterioration of more than 15 dB. No statistically significant difference (p=0.086) in average radiation dose was seen between ears with sensorineural threshold deterioration (50.0 Gy) and those without (48.2 Gy). CONCLUSION: Long-term ototoxicity following radiotherapy for NPC can occur in either the ipsilateral or contralateral ears. Pathophysiology varies between and within each side. The post-therapy increase in OME on the contralateral side was thought to be due to radiotherapy-induced Eustachian tube damage, and the sensorineural threshold deterioration in at least 4 ears was thought to be due to chronic cochlea damage secondary to COM.

Clinical features and outcomes of four patients with invasive fungal sinusitis.

OBJECTIVE: The frequency of invasive fungal sinusitis (IFS) has increased in recent years with the use of steroids, onset of diabetes mellitus, and the administration of antibacterial agents. We report on the clinical features and outcomes of four patients with IFS involving the cavernous sinus and orbit. Prognostic factors facilitating an early diagnosis are described, and the usefulness of combination therapy involving systemic administration of antifungal agents and surgical intervention is discussed. METHODS: We treated four patients with IFS between March 2003 and November 2007 at Ehime University Hospital. Patients were two males and two females, aged from 61 to 74 years (mean 67.8 years). RESULTS: With regard to clinical symptoms, headache was observed in all patients, and cranial nerve paralysis (visual disturbance, blindness, cheek paresthesia) was seen in 3 patients. ß-D-Glucan levels in four patients were high compared with normal values. Aspergillus was histopathologically identified from biopsy specimens in all patients. One patient was complicated with Candida in addition to the Aspergillus infection. Orbital exenteration and ESS were performed in 2 patients as surgical debridement. In all patients, systemic administration of antifungal agents was initiated after surgery. CONCLUSIONS: All patients received strategic treatment with surgery and systemic administration of anti-fungal agents. The single fatality was due to brain infarction caused by the spread of Aspergillus, and the remaining three patients are still alive. Our observations in these patients suggest that early diagnosis and strategic treatment may improve the prognosis of IFS.

Metastatic neck disease beyond the limits of a neck dissection: attention to the 'para-hyoid' area in T1/2 oral tongue cancer.

OBJECTIVE: We evaluated patients with small oral tongue cancer suffering from recurrence, which develops in the intervening area between the primary site and the neck. Lesions in the area around the cornu of the hyoid bone ('para-hyoid' area) often involve the hypoglossal nerve and the root of the lingual artery, resulting in treatment failure and death. METHODS: A 10-year retrospective chart review was conducted of 248 oral tongue cancer patients with small primary tumors (T1/2). No patients who underwent postoperative radiotherapy (PORT) were included. RESULTS: After excluding those who had local failure or developed new primary lesions, 6.3% of the patients were noted to have a para-hyoid lesion. A similar incidence was observed between the patients with and without previous neck dissection, 6.9% and 5.7%, respectively. All but one patient died due to uncontrolled neck disease. CONCLUSIONS: Recurrent para-hyoid lesions could occur, irrespective of a previous neck dissection. In other words, the para-hyoid area is beyond the limits of a neck dissection. Once a para-hyoid lesion becomes clinically evident, it seems difficult to salvage. Therefore, a careful inspection of the area should be included intraoperatively in any type of neck dissection (i.e. elective or therapeutic) for patients with oral tongue cancer. This may be the key to improving the regional control rate of patients with small oral tongue cancer. We believe that some patients will benefit from more aggressive treatment of the neck, although PORT seems unnecessary for the majority of the patients with limited neck disease.

Prospective study of early detection of pharyngeal superficial carcinoma with the narrowband imaging laryngoscope.

BACKGROUND: The newly developed narrowband imaging (NBI) gastrointestinal endoscope makes possible the detection of superficial carcinoma in the oropharynx and hypopharynx, which is difficult with the conventional laryngoscope. Here, we investigated whether the combined use of laryngoscope with NBI allows the detection of superficial carcinoma in this region. METHODS: A total of 51 superficial, histologically confirmed lesions in 29 patients were studied. The quality of visualization of superficial carcinoma in the oropharynx and hypopharynx using the NBI-equipped laryngoscope was evaluated in comparison with the results by conventional laryngoscopy. RESULTS: The NBI laryngoscope provided better detection of the irregular microvascular pattern of carcinoma than the conventional laryngoscope (p <.05) and better visualization of the demarcation line (p <.05), and thus significantly better visualization of the lesions. CONCLUSION: The NBI laryngoscope may play an important role in the diagnosis and treatment of superficial carcinoma in the oropharynx and hypopharynx.

A new flap design for tongue reconstruction after total or subtotal glossectomy in thin patients.

OBJECTIVE: For tongue reconstruction after total or subtotal glossectomy, a rectus abdominis musculocutaneous flap is often used to obtain sufficient flap volume. However, thin patients often have too little fat tissue to ensure adequate flap volume. For this reason we developed a new flap design to compensate for insufficient flap volume in thin patients. METHODS: In this series, total or subtotal glossectomy was performed in 20 thin men with a mean age of 58.3 years. The patients had a mean body mass index of 18.22 kg/m(2) and most were considered emaciated. The defects were reconstructed using a rectus abdominis musculocutaneous flap with two skin islands. The first skin island was used to reconstruct the mucosal defect, and the second was de-epithelialised and used to increase flap volume. RESULTS: Flaps were transferred successfully in 19 out of 20 patients. Most patients could tolerate more than a soft diet without severe aspiration and could engage in conversation. However, four patients required total laryngectomy or a permanent stoma owing to severe aspiration. In this series, the larynx could be preserved in 80% of thin patients, and satisfactory postoperative oral function was obtained. CONCLUSION: The most important point for obtaining satisfactory oral function is to reconstruct a tongue with a protuberant shape and sufficient volume. We could maintain sufficient flap volume with the de-epithelialised skin island of a rectus abdominis musculocutaneous free flap. We believe our new flap design is effective for tongue reconstruction in thin patients.

Three-dimensional reconstruction of supraglottic structures after partial pharyngolaryngectomy for hypopharyngeal cancer.

OBJECTIVE: Larynx-preserving surgery is frequently performed for advanced hypopharyngeal cancer involving the larynx. However, reconstruction after partial pharyngolaryngectomy (PPL) remains a challenging problem because of the high risk of postoperative aspiration. In this report, we describe our new three-dimensional method for reconstructing supraglottic structures with a radial forearm flap. This is a retrospective analysis of 20 patients who underwent PPL for having hypopharyngeal cancer involving the larynx at our institution from 1996 to 2005. METHODS: The resulting pharyngolaryngeal defects were reconstructed with radial forearm flaps in all patients. Three-dimensional structures were reconstructed with a single nylon suture, which was used to hoist the flap and ensures that the arytenoids and the aryepiglottic fold were of appropriate height. RESULTS: Radial forearm flaps were transferred successfully in all but one case. Swallowing function was satisfactory in all patients, and decannulation could be performed in all but one patient. Postoperative conversational function in all patients was rated as excellent with Hirose's scoring system. CONCLUSIONS: Free jejunum transfer is the method of first choice for reconstruction of a defect after partial hypopharyngectomy. However, the complex supraglottic structures of the larynx are difficult to reconstruct with a free jejunal graft after PPL. In such cases, we perform three-dimensional reconstruction of the pharyngolaryngeal defect with a radial forearm flap and have achieved satisfactory postoperative function. We believe that our new procedure is a useful method for functional reconstruction after PPL.

Palliative total pharyngo-laryngo-esophagectomy.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the outcomes of total pharyngo-laryngo-esophagectomy (TPLE) as a palliative procedure for achieving oral intake without tube placement. BACKGROUND: Patients with head and neck cancers require airway maintenance achieved by the placement of a tracheostomy tube and nutrition provided through a gastric fistula or a central vein, which may markedly decrease the quality of life (QOL) of the patients. CASES: Two patients with cervical esophageal cancer are described. The first patient was a 69-year-old male with cervical esophageal cancer with vertebral invasion, for which complete resection was not possible. Following TPLE, oral intake was initiated on post-operative day 9 and was maintained for 138 days. The second patient was a 73-year-old male with recurrent cervical esophageal cancer and unresectable lymph node metastasis for which lymph node dissection was not applicable. Following TPLE, oral intake was initiated on post-operative day 7 and was maintained for 199 days. Both patients were satisfied with the outcome. CONCLUSIONS: The QOL of the two patients was improved following the restoration of oral intake ability. Palliative TPLE may be appropriate for patients with advanced head and neck cancers.

Surgical management of carcinoma of the cervical esophagus.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the present study was to clarify the clinicopathological characteristics, reconstruction methods after resection, and prognosis of cervical esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. METHODS: Seventy-four with squamous cell carcinomas of the cervical esophagus not previously treated who underwent cervical esophagectomy or total esophagectomy with or without laryngectomy were retrospectively analyzed. RESULTS: The operative morbidity and in-hospital mortality rates were 34% (25 patients) and 4% (3 patients), respectively. Alimentary continuity was achieved with free jejunal transfer (50 patients), gastric pull-up (19 patients), and other procedures (5 patients). The frequencies of postoperative complications and death did not differ between free jejunal transfer and gastric pull-up. The overall 3- and 5-year survival rates were 42% and 33%, respectively. The significant clinicopathological factors affecting survival were patient gender, high T factor, lymph node involvement, palpable cervical lymph nodes, vocal cord paralysis, lymphatic invasion, and extracapsular invasion. The pattern of first failure was most often locoregional (82%, 36 patients). CONCLUSION: The choice of free jejunal transfer or gastric pull-up for reconstruction after surgical resection of cervical esophageal carcinoma depends on the degree of tumor extension. Adverse factors affecting survival should be considered when candidates for the surgery are selected.

Esophagectomy with three-field lymph node dissection for esophageal carcinoma with a nonrecurrent inferior laryngeal nerve.

In rare cases, the inferior laryngeal nerve branches directly from the vagus trunk. A 58-year-old man with carcinoma of the thoracic esophagus was referred to our hospital. A nonrecurrent anomaly of the right recurrent laryngeal nerve associated with an aberrant right subclavian artery was detected preoperatively by computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. This artery ran on the right side between the esophagus and the vertebral column. Recognition of this nerve before upper mediastinal lymph node dissection was thought to be important for avoiding unexpected neural injuries. For a successful esophagectomy with three-field lymph node dissection in patients associated with this anomaly, a cervico-abdominal procedure followed by a thoracic procedure, which is the reverse of the usual process, could be useful for a safe operation. However, this anomaly made it difficult to dissect lymph node along the left recurrent laryngeal nerve.