Pulmonary function responses to ozone in smokers with a limited smoking history.

In non-smokers, ozone (O3) inhalation causes decreases in forced expiratory volume (FEV1) and dead space (VD) and increases the slope of the alveolar plateau (SN). We previously described a population of smokers with a limited smoking history that had enhanced responsiveness to brief O3 boluses and aimed to determine if responsiveness to continuous exposure was also enhanced. Thirty smokers (19M, 11F, 24±4 years, 6±4 total years smoking,4±2 packs/week) and 30 non-smokers (17M, 13F, 25±6 years) exercised for 1h on a cycle ergometer while breathing 0.30ppm O3. Smokers and non-smokers were equally responsive in terms of FEV1 (-9.5±1.8% vs -8.7±1.9%). Smokers alone were responsive in terms of VD (-6.1±1.2%) and SN (9.1±3.4%). There was no difference in total delivered dose. Dead space ventilation (VD/VT) was not initially different between the two groups, but increased in the non-smokers (16.4±2.8%) during the exposure, suggesting that the inhaled dose may be distributed more peripherally in smokers. We also conclude that these cigarette smokers retain their airway responsiveness to O3 and, uniquely, experience changes in VD that lead to heterogeneity in airway morphometry and an increase in SN.

Comparison of ozone-specific (OZAC) and oxygen radical (ORAC) antioxidant capacity assays for use with nasal lavage fluid.

Antioxidants in respiratory mucus protect the underlying airway epithelium from damage by ozone (O(3)), a common outdoor air pollutant. To understand O(3)-antioxidant interactions and the variation of these interactions among individuals, in vitro assays are needed to measure the total antioxidant capacity of airway lavage fluid, a convenient source of (diluted) mucous samples. Here, we compare the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), a general method that uses peroxyl radicals as a reactive substance, to the recently developed ozone specific antioxidant capacity (OZAC), a procedure that directly employs O(3). For prepared model mucous antioxidant solutions containing uric acid, ascorbic acid or glutathione, the ORAC and OZAC methods yielded comparable antioxidant capacities. The addition of EDTA or DETAPAC, necessary to prevent auto-oxidation of test solutions during the ORAC assay, unpredictably altered ORAC measurements. EDTA did not have a significant effect on OZAC measurements in either prepared uric acid or ascorbic acid solutions. When assessing antioxidant capacities of nasal lavage samples, the ORAC and OZAC assays were no longer comparable. Because the OZAC of nasal lavage samples was positively related to measured uric acid concentrations whereas the ORAC data were not, the OZAC method appears to provide more realistic mucous antioxidant capacities than the ORAC method.

Longitudinal distribution of ozone absorption in the lung: comparison of cigarette smokers and nonsmokers.

In nonsmokers, ozone (O(3)) is removed primarily by the epithelial lining fluid (ELF) of the conducting airways. We hypothesized that cigarette smokers, whose ELF antioxidant capacity may be limited by smoking, would remove less O(3) from their conducting airways than nonsmokers. We recruited 29 nonsmokers (17M, 12F) and 30 smokers (19M, 11F, 4+/-4 pack-years) with similar anthropometric characteristics and measured the longitudinal distribution of O(3) using the bolus inhalation method. We also assessed the physiological effect of this transient exposure regimen using forced spirometry and capnography. Contrary to our hypothesis, the penetration volume at which 50% of a bolus was absorbed was not different between smokers and nonsmokers (97.1+/-5.4 mL versus 97.9+/-5.8 mL, p=0.92). However, smokers did experience an increase in the slope of the alveolar plateau of the capnogram (S(N)) (8.1+/-3.2%, p=0.02) and a small decrease in FEV(1) (-1.3+/-0.6%, p=0.03), whereas nonsmokers did not (DeltaFEV(1) -0.1+/-0.5% and DeltaS(N) -0.2+/-2.5%, p>0.10). Thus, smokers are more sensitive to inhaled O(3) boluses than nonsmokers, despite a similar internal dose distribution.

Ozone Uptake During Inspiratory Flow in a Model of the Larynx, Trachea and Primary Bronchial Bifurcation.

Three-dimensional simulations of the transport and uptake of a reactive gas such as O(3) were compared between an idealized model of the larynx, trachea, and first bifurcation and a second "control" model in which the larynx was replaced by an equivalent, cylindrical, tube segment. The Navier-Stokes equations, Spalart-Allmaras turbulence equation, and convection-diffusion equation were implemented at conditions reflecting inhalation into an adult human lung. Simulation results were used to analyze axial velocity, turbulent viscosity, local fractional uptake, and regional uptake. Axial velocity data revealed a strong laryngeal jet with a reattachment point in the proximal trachea. Turbulent viscosity data indicated that jet turbulence occurred only at high Reynolds numbers and was attenuated by the first bifurcation. Local fractional uptake data affirmed hotspots previously reported at the first carina, and suggested additional hotspots at the glottal constriction and jet reattachment point in the proximal trachea. These laryngeal effects strongly depended on inlet Reynolds number, with maximal effects (approaching 15%) occurring at maximal inlet flow rates. While the increase in the regional uptake caused by the larynx subsided by the end of the model, the effect of the larynx on cumulative uptake persisted further downstream. These results suggest that with prolonged exposure to a reactive gas, entire regions of the larynx and proximal trachea could show signs of tissue injury.

Comparison of axisymmetric and three-dimensional models for gas uptake in a single bifurcation during steady expiration.

Reactive gas uptake is predicted and compared in a single bifurcation at steady expiratory flow in terms of Sherwood number using an axisymmetric single-path model (ASPM) and a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics model (CFDM). ASPM is validated in a two-generation geometry by comparing the average gas-phase mass transfer coefficients with the experimental values. ASPM predicted mass transfer coefficients within 20% of the experimental values. The flow and concentration variables in the ASPM were solved using Galerkin finite element method and in the CFDM using commercial finite element software FIDAP. The simulations were performed for reactive gas flowing at Reynolds numbers ranging from 60 to 350 in both symmetric bifurcation for three bifurcation angles, 30 deg, 70 deg, and 90 deg, and in an asymmetric bifurcation. The numerical models compared with each other qualitatively but quantitatively they were within 0.4-8% due to nonfully developed flow in the parent branch predicted by the CFDM. The radially averaged concentration variation along the axial location matched qualitatively between the CFDM and ASPM but quantitatively they were within 32% due to differences in the flow field. ASPM predictions compared well with the CFDM predictions for an asymmetric bifurcation. These results validate the simplified ASPM and the complex CFDM. ASPM predicts higher Sherwood number with a flat velocity inlet profile compared to a parabolic inlet velocity profile. Sherwood number increases with the inlet average velocity, wall mass transfer coefficient, and bifurcation angle since the boundary layer grows slower in the parent and daughter branches.

Modeling approaches for estimating the dosimetry of inhaled toxicants in children.

Risk assessment of inhaled toxicants has typically focused upon adults, with modeling used to extrapolate dosimetry and risks from lab animals to humans. However, behavioral factors such as time spent playing outdoors may lead to more exposure to inhaled toxicants in children. Depending on the inhaled agent and the age and size of the child, children may receive a greater internal dose than adults because of greater ventilation rate per body weight or lung surface area, or metabolic differences may result in different tissue burdens. Thus, modeling techniques need to be adapted to children in order to estimate inhaled dose and risk in this potentially susceptible life stage. This paper summarizes a series of inhalation dosimetry presentations from the U.S. EPA's Workshop on Inhalation Risk Assessment in Children held on June 8-9, 2006 in Washington, DC. These presentations demonstrate how existing default models for particles and gases may be adapted for children, and how more advanced modeling of toxicant deposition and interaction in respiratory airways takes into account children's anatomy and physiology. These modeling efforts identify child-adult dosimetry differences in respiratory tract regions that may have implications for children's vulnerability to inhaled toxicants. A decision framework is discussed that considers these different approaches and modeling structures including assessment of parameter values, supporting data, reliability, and selection of dose metrics.

Three-dimensional simulations of reactive gas uptake in single airway bifurcations.

The pattern of lung injury induced by the inhalation of ozone (O(3)) depends on the dose delivered to different tissues in the airways. This study examined the distribution of O(3) uptake in a single, symmetrically branched airway bifurcation. Reaction in the epithelial lining fluid was assumed to be so rapid that O(3) concentration was negligible along the entire surface of the bifurcation wall. Three-dimensional numerical solutions of the continuity, Navier-Stokes and convection-diffusion equations were obtained for steady inspiratory and expiratory flows at Reynolds numbers ranging from 100 to 500. The total rate of O(3) uptake was found to increase with increasing flow rate during both inspiration and expiration. Hot spots of O(3) flux appeared at the carina of the bifurcation for virtually all inspiratory and expiratory Reynolds numbers considered in the simulations. At the lowest expiratory Reynolds number, however, the location of the maximum flux was shifted to the outer wall of the daughter branch. For expiratory flow, additional hot spots of flux were found on the parent branch wall just downstream of the branching region. In all cases, O(3) uptake in the single bifurcation was larger than that in a straight tube of equal inlet radius and wall surface area. This study provides insight into the effect of flow conditions on O(3) uptake and dose distribution in individual bifurcations.

Kinetics of ozone reaction with uric acid, ascorbic acid, and glutathione at physiologically relevant conditions.

This study quantified the reaction kinetics of O3 with three low molecular weight antioxidants-uric acid (UA), ascorbic acid (AH2), and glutathione (GSH)-found in respiratory mucous. Using a semi-batch reactor in which a 500 ml/min flow of air containing 1-5 parts per million of O3 contacted 3 ml of well-stirred physiological saline solution containing 100-200 microM antioxidant, we found that: (1) mass transfer resistances in the gas and liquid phases were successfully eliminated by the reactor design; (2) the reaction of O3 with UA, AH2 and GSH had stoichiometries of 1:1, 1:1, and 1:2.5, respectively; (3) the reactivity between O3 and antioxidants was in the order UA approximately AH2>GSH. Simulating the measured amounts of O3 absorbed and antioxidant consumed with a mathematical model, reaction rate constants of O(3) with UA, AH2, and GSH were found to be 5.83 x 10(4) M(-1) s(-1), 5.5 x 10(4) M(-1) s(-1), and 57.5 M(-0.75) s(-1), respectively.

An axisymmetric single-path model for gas transport in the conducting airways.

In conventional one-dimensional single-path models, radially averaged concentration is calculated as a function of time and longitudinal position in the lungs, and coupled convection and diffusion are accounted for with a dispersion coefficient. The axisymmetric single-path model developed in this paper is a two-dimensional model that incorporates convective-diffusion processes in a more fundamental manner by simultaneously solving the Navier-Stokes and continuity equations with the convection-diffusion equation. A single airway path was represented by a series of straight tube segments interconnected by leaky transition regions that provide for flow loss at the airway bifurcations. As a sample application, the model equations were solved by a finite element method to predict the unsteady state dispersion of an inhaled pulse of inert gas along an airway path having dimensions consistent with Weibel's symmetric airway geometry. Assuming steady, incompressible, and laminar flow, a finite element analysis was used to solve for the axisymmetric pressure, velocity and concentration fields. The dispersion calculated from these numerical solutions exhibited good qualitative agreement with the experimental values, but quantitatively was in error by 20%-30% due to the assumption of axial symmetry and the inability of the model to capture the complex recirculatory flows near bifurcations.

Changes in the carbon dioxide expirogram in response to ozone exposure.

The objectives of this study were to quantify pulmonary responses to ozone (O3) exposure by parameters computed from the carbon dioxide expirogram and to compare these responses to decrements in forced expired spirometry. Anatomical dead space (VD) was determined from the pure dead space and transition regions of the expirogram. Four alternative parameters were computed from the alveolar plateau: slope (S), normalized slope (NS), peripheral cross-sectional area (AP) and well-mixed peripheral volume (VMP). Forty-seven healthy nonsmokers (25 men and 22 women) participated in two research sessions in which they exercised on a cycle ergometer for 1 h while orally inhaling either room air at a minute ventilation of 30.6 +/- 3.6 L or room air mixed with 0.252 +/- 0.029 ppm O3 at a minute ventilation of 29.9 +/- 3.7 L. Carbon dioxide expirograms were measured before exposure, 10 min after exposure and 70 min after exposure. Percent changes (mean +/- SD) in expirogram parameters were significant (P < or = 0.002) at both 10 and 70 min after O3 exposure: VD(-4.2 +/- 5.1, -3.3 +/- 6.9), S(16.4 +/- 17.9, +15.1 +/- 20.2), NS(17.5 +/- 15.4, +15.9 +/- 19.2), AP(-8.1 +/- 7.6, -7.7 +/- 9.8) and VMP(-15.4 +/- 13.0, -13.0 +/- 15.2). Percent decrements of forced expired volume in one second (FEV1) were also significant at both 10 min (-13.3 +/- 13.4) and 70 min (-11.1 +/- 9.2) following O3 exposure. Changes in the expirogram as well as decrements in FEV1 were not significant at either time point after air exposure. Thus, the CO2 expirogram is useful for characterizing the effect of O3 exposure on gas transport, and for supplementing forced expired spirometry that is frequently used to quantify lung mechanics.

Uptake of ozone in human lungs and its relationship to local physiological response.

To investigate whether intersubject variations in the dose of inhaled ozone (O(3)) cause corresponding variations in the physiological response, 28 female and 32 male nonsmokers participated in a 1-h continuous inhalation of clean air or 0.25 ppm O(3) while exercising on a cycle ergometer at a constant ventilation rate of 30 L/min. The exposure protocols included continuous monitoring of respiratory flow rate and O(3) concentration from which O(3) uptake (OZU) and fractional uptake efficiency (UE) were computed. Pre-to-post changes in forced expired volume in 1 s (%DeltaFEV(1)), peripheral cross section for carbon dioxide diffusion (%Delta A(P)), and Fowler dead space volume (V(D)) were also measured for each exposure. Individual values of UE ranged from .70 to .98 among all the subjects, with significant differences (p<.05) existing between men and women. These intersubject differences were inversely correlated with breathing frequency and directly correlated with tidal volume. The mean +/- SD values of %Delta FEV(1), %Delta A(P), and %Delta V(D) were all significantly more negative in the O(3) exposure session (-13.31 +/- 13.40, -8.14 +/- 7.62, and -4.20 +/- 5.12, respectively) than in the air exposure session (-0.06 +/- 4.56, 0.22 +/- 10.82, and -0.70 +/- 6.88, respectively). Finally, our results showed that neither %DeltaFEV(1) nor %Delta V(D) was correlated OZU, whereas there was a significant relationship (rho = -0.325, p = .0257) between %Delta A(P) and OZU. We conclude that the overall uptake of O(3) is a weak predictor of intersubject variations in distal airspace response, but is not a predictor of intersubject variations in conducting airway responses.

Uptake distribution of ozone in human lungs: intersubject variability in physiologic response.

The primary hypothesis of this study was that intersubject variation in uptake of inhaled ozone causes corresponding variation in the resulting physiologic response. The second hypothesis was that differences in breathing pattern and lung anatomy induce differences in ozone uptake. Sixty healthy nonsmokers participated in three exposure protocols during which their minute ventilation was 30 L/min, corresponding to moderate exercise. For the intermittent bolus exposure to ozone (BO3*), we measured the penetration volume at which 50% of the bolus was taken up (VP50%). Before and after continuous clean air exposure (Ca) and continuous ozone exposure (CO3: 0.25 ppm ozone), we measured forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1), calculated as the percent change after exposure relative to start of exposure [%FEV1]). We also measured the cross-sectional area of the peripheral lung (Ap) for carbon dioxide (CO2) diffusion, calculated as the percent change after exposure relative to start of exposure (%Ap). After the CO3 session, we also measured ozone uptake (as ozone uptake rate) and fractional ozone uptake efficiency. Uptake efficiency ranged from 0.70 to 0.98 among all subjects. It was inversely correlated with breathing frequency (P = 0.000) but was not correlated with conducting airways volume (P = 0.333). VP50% ranged from 67 to 135 mL among all subjects and was directly correlated with conducting airways volume (P = 0.000). These results indicate that overall ozone uptake was related to breathing frequency but not to airway size, whereas internal distribution of ozone shifted distally as airway size increased. Values of %FEV1 (mean +/- SD: -13.71 +/- 12.99) and %Ap (-7.80 +/- 9.34) were both significantly more negative (P = 0.000) in the CO3 session than in the Ca (control) session (-0.055 +/- 4.57 and 0.40 +/- 11.03, respectively). Ozone uptake rate correlated with individual %Ap (P = 0.008) but not with individual %FEV1 (P = 0.575). Nor were individual %Ap or %FEV1 correlated with VP50%. Therefore, ozone uptake did not explain intersubject differences in forced expiratory responses in this study, but it did partially explain differences in the cross-sectional area available for gas diffusion in the peripheral lung.

Development of an assay for ozone-specific antioxidant capacity.

A method of determining the ozone-specific antioxidant capacity (OZAC) of lavage samples from the respiratory system was developed: Gaseous ozone (O(3)) was produced in cuvettes by irradiation with an ultraviolet lamp; aliquots of sample or of a saline control were then added and sufficient time was allowed for ozonation to reach completion; and an aliquot of indigo trisulfonate (ITS) was added to react with excess O(3). Because each molecule of O(3) rapidly bleaches one molecule of the deeply colored ITS, an OZAC value in concentration units was computed from the difference in light absorbance between the sample and the saline control multiplied by the extinction coefficient of ITS. Experiments in 0-40 micro M antioxidant solutions indicated that the OZAC values of uric acid and ascorbic acid were close to their actual concentrations and were independent of O(3) concentration. On the other hand, the OZAC of reduced glutathione and possibly human nasal lavage were nonlinearly related to antioxidant concentration and were directly related to O(3) concentration.