Leaf extracts of eight selected southern African medicinal plants modulate pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages.

This study investigates the anti-inflammatory properties of extracts prepared from the leaves of eight southern African medicinal plants used traditionally to treat inflammation and pain. The inhibitory effect of aqueous and ethanol extracts on the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines was determined in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated and unstimulated RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cells. The levels of interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) and macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-2 release were determined using cytokine multiplex-bead assays. The ethanol extracts of Melianthus comosus Vahl (commonly known as honey flower), Tetradenia riparia (Hochst.) Codd (misty plume bush) and Warburgia salutaris (G. Bertol.) Chiov. (pepper-bark tree), demonstrated the most significant inhibitory activity, with over 50-fold inhibition of IL-1ß, IL-6 and TNF-α levels in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. The aqueous extract of M. comosus also significantly inhibited the secretion of all the tested cytokines and chemokines. Phytochemical investigation of M. comosus ethanol leaf extract using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS) led to the detection of crassolide, deoxylimonoic acid D-ring-lactone, 2-hydroxynonanoic acid and 5-noniloxytryptamine. To the best of our knowledge, the cytokine inhibition properties of most of the medicinal plants screened in this study are reported for the first time. Our results support the use of southern African medicinal plants as anti-inflammatory remedies and provide an insight into the immunomodulatory mechanisms of action.

Essential Oil Composition and Traditional Uses of Salvia dentata, a Poorly Known Medicinal Plant from Namaqualand, South Africa.

South Africa has a rich history of medicinal plant species and their documented uses as traditional medicines, and is also home to three well-known, blue-flowered sage species of ethnobotanical importance. The Namaqualand bloublomsalie (Salvia dentata) has so far remained unstudied and apparently overlooked. Our study is the first to report on the essential oil chemistry of this medicinally relevant species and provide a comparison with the other two (well-studied) closely related Cape bloublomsalies (Salvia africana and S. chamelaeagnea). The data, generated from three geographically isolated populations comprised of 13 individual plants of S. dentata, revealed diagnostically high levels of camphor (14.37%), α-pinene (11.43%), camphene (10.18%), 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) (9.42%) and bornyl acetate (8.56%) which provide a distinct chemical profile from the other two species.

A review of the traditional use of southern African medicinal plants for the treatment of inflammation and inflammatory pain.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Inflammation is a serious global concern due to its debilitating symptoms, resulting in considerable suffering and lost productivity. Chronic and auto-immune inflammatory diseases are of particular concern. Several pharmaceutical therapies are already available. However, the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID's) is accompanied by harmful and toxic side effects. Hence, the search for safer alternative therapeutics with limited side effects is imperative. The use of medicinal plants is common practice amongst the southern African population and may provide targets for drug development. AIM OF THE STUDY: This study aims to review and document the medicinal uses and pharmacological properties of southern African medicinal plants used for inflammation and pain-related ailments. MATERIAL AND METHODS: An extensive literature review was undertaken to identify southern African plants used traditionally to treat inflammation. A variety of ethnobotanical books and grey literature, as well as ScienceDirect, Google Scholar and Scopus search engines were used as sources of information. RESULTS: This review identified 555 medicinal plants from 118 families which were traditionally used in southern Africa to treat inflammation and pain. Fabaceae was the most prominent family with 63 species, followed by Asteraceae (54 species) and Apocynaceae (33 species). The top category of ailments indicated include non-specific inflammation with 150 species, followed by inflammatory pain (148 species), headache (114 species) and toothache (114 species). CONCLUSION: Despite a large number of southern African medicinal plants used to treat inflammation and pain, relatively few have been screened for their anti-inflammatory properties. Furthermore, biologically active plant extracts have been tested against relatively few inflammatory markers and considerable further work is required.

The Ethnobotany and Chemistry of South African Meliaceae: A Review.

Meliaceae are widely distributed across the world in tropical or subtropical climates and are of considerable ethnobotanical importance as sources of traditional medicine and cosmetics. This comprehensive review summarizes the ethnobotanical uses and chemistry of 12 South African species, belonging to six genera: Ekebergia, Nymania, Entandrophragma, Pseudobersama, Trichilia, and Turraea. Eight of the species have ethnomedicinal records, classified into 17 major disease categories. The ethnomedicinal uses comprise 85 ailments dominated by gastrointestinal complaints, followed by gynaecological and obstetrics related problems. Chemical records were found for 10 species, which describe nine classes of compounds. In nearly all South African Meliaceae, limonoids are the predominant constituents while triterpenes, sterols, and coumarins are also common. The widest range of use-records and medicinal applications are found with the two most chemically diverse species, Ekebergiacapensis and Trichiliaemetica. Of the chemical compounds identified in the various plant organs of the 10 species of South African Meliaceae for which data are available, 42% was found in bark and 17% in seeds. Roots represent 35% and bark 33% of the organs that are used medicinally, and they are typically prepared as decoctions or infusions. Root and bark harvesting are destructive so that it may be important to examine the chemistry of plant parts such as wild-crafted leaves and fruits.

Colour of floral styles in the Banksia spinulosa Sm complex (Proteaceae) relates to the anthocyanin and flavonol profile, not soil pH.

The cylindrical conflorescences of the Banksia spinulosa Sm complex have several different colour types, i.e., black, red, maroon, lemon, and yellow. It is unknown if colour variation is due to extrinsic factors, importantly soil pH. Recent morphological observations have indicated that style colour are not contiguous, so follow-up chemical and soil analysis was conducted to further characterize the colour difference with respect to putative taxa and abiotic factors. Conflorescences of all known colours were sampled from across the eastern Australian distribution of B. spinulosa, and the respective soils were sampled and analysed for pH and total nitrogen. Regression analyses of this data demonstrated that pH and nitrogen gave nil and limited predictability for style colour respectively, i.e., only the taxa with black styles demonstrated a correlation, which was to a soil with slightly higher nitrogen content (p < 0.05). Furthermore, differences of pH were more often between taxa with conflorescences of the same colour. For chemical characterisation, the coloured styles were removed from conflorescences, extracted, and analysed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS-DAD). Ten anthocyanin and twelve flavonol monoglycosides were identified by mass spectral fragmentation patterns (MS1 and MS2) and retention times. The data demonstrates that style colour differences are caused by the concentration of anthocyanins and their specific chemistry. It remains to be determined if the differences of anthocyanin expression are caused by other abiotic factors, or if it is intrinsic to the respective taxon.

South Africa's Best BARK Medicines Prescribed at the Johannesburg Muthi Markets for Skin, Gut, and Lung Infections: MIC's and Brine Shrimp Lethality.

Indigenous trade of medicinal plants in South Africa is a multi-million-rand industry and is still highly relevant in terms of primary health care. The purpose of this study was to identify today's most traded medicinal barks, traditionally and contemporaneously used for dermatological, gastrointestinal, and respiratory tract infections; then, to investigate the antimicrobial activity and toxicity of the respective extracts and interpret outcomes in light of pharmacokinetics. Thirty-one popularly traded medicinal barks were purchased from the Faraday and Kwa Mai-Mai markets in Johannesburg, South Africa. Information on the medicinal uses of bark-based medicines in modern commerce was recorded from randomly selected traders. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) method was used for antimicrobial screening, and brine shrimp lethality was used to determine toxicity. New medicinal uses were recorded for 14 bark species. Plants demonstrating some broad-spectrum activities against tested bacteria include Elaeodendron transvaalense, Erythrina lysistemon, Garcinia livingstonei, Pterocelastrus rostratus, Rapanea melanophloeos, Schotia brachypetala, Sclerocarya birrea, and Ziziphus mucronata. The lowest MIC value of 0.004 mg/mL was observed against Staphylococcus epidermidis for a dichloromethane bark extract of E. lysistemon. The tested medicinal barks were shown to be non-toxic against the Artemia nauplii (brine shrimp) bioassay, except for a methanol extract from Trichilia emetica (69.52% mortality). Bacterial inhibition of bark extracts with minimal associated toxicity is consistent with the safety and valuable use of medicinal barks for local muthi market customers. Antimicrobial outcomes against skin and gastrointestinal pathogens are feasible because mere contact-inhibition is required in vivo; however, MIC values against respiratory pathogens require further explaining from a pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics perspective, particularly for ingested rather than smoked therapies.

The Botanical, Chemical and Ethnobotanical Diversity of Southern African Lamiaceae.

The Lamiaceae is undoubtedly an important plant family, having a rich history of use that spans the globe with many species being used in folk medicine and modern industries alike. Their ability to produce aromatic volatile oils has made them valuable sources of materials in the cosmetic, culinary, and pharmaceutical industries. A thorough account of the taxonomic diversity, chemistry and ethnobotany is lacking for southern African Lamiaceae, which feature some of the region's most notable medicinal and edible plant species. We provide a comprehensive insight into the Lamiaceae flora of southern Africa, comprising 297 species in 42 genera, 105 of which are endemic to the subcontinent. We further explore the medicinal and traditional uses, where all genera with documented uses are covered for the region. A broad review of the chemistry of southern African Lamiaceae is presented, noting that only 101 species (34%) have been investigated chemically (either their volatile oils or phytochemical characterization of secondary metabolites), thus presenting many and varied opportunities for further studies. The main aim of our study was therefore to present an up-to-date account of the botany, chemistry and traditional uses of the family in southern Africa, and to identify obvious knowledge gaps.

Electronic identification keys for species with cryptic morphological characters: a feasibility study using some Thesium species.

The popularity of electronic identification keys for species identification has increased with the rapid technological advancements of the 21st century. Although electronic identification keys have several advantages over conventional textual identification keys and work well for charismatic species with large and clear morphological characters, they appear to be less feasible and less effective for species with cryptic morphology (i.e. small, obscure, variable characters and/or complicated structures associated with terminology that is difficult to interpret). This is largely due to the difficulty in presenting and illustrating cryptic morphological characters unambiguously. When taking into account that enigmatic species with cryptic morphology are often taxonomically problematic and therefore likely exacerbate the taxonomic impediment, it is clear that species groups with cryptic morphology (and all the disciplines dependent on their correct identification) could greatly benefit from a user-friendly identification tool, which clearly illustrates cryptic characters. To this end, the aim of this study was to investigate and develop best practices for the unambiguous presentation of cryptic morphological characters using a pilot interactive photographic identification key for the taxonomically difficult plant genus Thesium (Santalaceae), as well as to determine its feasibility. The project consisted of three stages: (1) software platform selection, (2) key construction and (3) key evaluation. The proposed identification key was produced with Xper3 software and can be accessed at http://www.xper3.fr/xper3GeneratedFiles/publish/identification/1330098581747548637/mkey.html. Methodologies relating to amongst others, character selection and delineation, visual and textual descriptions, key construction, character coding and key evaluation are discussed in detail. Seventeen best practices identified during this study are subsequently suggested for future electronic key compilation of species with cryptic morphology. This study indicates that electronic identification keys can be feasible and effective aids for the identification of species with cryptic morphological characters when the suggested best practices are followed.

Antimicrobial Isoflavones and Derivatives from Erythrina (Fabaceae): Structure Activity Perspective (Sar & Qsar) on Experimental and Mined Values Against Staphylococcus Aureus.

Prenylated (iso)flavonoids, -flavans and pterocarpans from taxa in Erythrina are repeatedly flagged as potent antimicrobial compounds. In the current study, bark from E. lysistemon was extracted and seven isoflavone derivatives were purified: erybraedin A (1), phaseollidin (2), abyssinone V-4' methyl ether (3), eryzerin C (4), alpumisoflavone (5), cristacarpin (6) and lysisteisoflavone (7). Minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) values were determined against a range of species of bacteria (skin pathogens), then values for another 67 derivatives from Erythrina, only against Staphylococcus aureus, were mined from the literature. Of the seven isolates, MIC values widely ranged from 1-600 µg/mL, with no obvious pattern of selectivity for Gram-types. Nevertheless, using the mined and experimentally determined values against S. aureus, Klekota-Roth fragments (Structure Activity Relationship: SAR) were determined then used as molecular descriptors to make a 'decision tree' based on structural characters inspired by the classes of antimicrobial potency (classes A-D). Furthermore, to make quantitative predictions of MIC values (Quantitative SAR: QSAR) 'pace regression' was utilized and validated (R² = 0.778, Q² = 0.727 and P² = 0.555). Evidently, the position and degree of prenylation is important; however, the presence of hydroxyl groups at positions 5 and 7 in ring A and 4' in ring B is associated with lower MIC values. While antimicrobial results continue to validate the traditional use of E. lysistemon extracts (or Erythrina generally) in therapeutic applications consistent with anti-infection, it is surprising that this class of compound is not being utilized more often in general industry applications, such as food or cosmetic preservation, or in topical antimicrobial creams. Prenylated (iso)flavonoids are derived from several other Genera, such as Dorstenia (Moraceae), Ficus (Moraceae), Glycyrrhiza (Fabaceae), Paulownia (Lamiales) or Pomifera (Moraceae).

New Labdanes with Antimicrobial and Acaricidal Activity: Terpenes of Callitris and Widdringtonia (Cupressaceae).

In spite of the evidence for antimicrobial and acaricidal effects in ethnobotanical reports of Callitris and Widdringtonia, the diterpene acids from Widdringtonia have never been described and no comparison to the Australian clade sister genus Callitris has been made. The critically endangered South African Clanwilliam cedar, Widdringtonia wallichii (syn. W. cedarbergensis), of the Cederberg Mountains was once prized for its enduring fragrant timbers and an essential oil that gives an aroma comparable to better known Mediterranean cedars, predominantly comprised by widdrol, cedrol, and thujopsene. In South Africa, two other 'cedars' are known, which are called W. nodiflora and W. schwarzii, but, until now, their chemical similarity to W. wallichii has not been investigated. Much like Widdringtonia, Callitris was once prized for its termite resistant timbers and an 'earthy' essential oil, but predominantly guaiol. The current study demonstrates that the essential oils were similar across all three species of Widdringtonia and two known non-volatile diterpene acids were identified in leaves: the pimaradiene sandaracopimaric acid (1) and the labdane Z-communic acid (2) with a lower yield of the E-isomer (3). Additionally, in the leaves of the three species, the structures of five new antimicrobial labdanes were assigned: 12-hydroxy-8R,17-epoxy-isocommunic acid (4), 8S-formyl-isocommunic acid (5), 8R,17-epoxy-isocommunic acid (6), 8R-17R-epoxy-E-communic acid (7), and 8R-17-epoxy-E-communic acid (8). Australian Callitris columellaris (syn. C. glaucophylla) also produced 1 and its isomer isopimaric acid, pisiferal (9), and pisiferic acid (10) from its leaves. Callitris endlicheri (Parl.) F.M.Bailey yielded isoozic acid (11) as the only major diterpene. Diterpenes 4-6, pisiferic acid (10), spathulenol, and guaiol (12) demonstrated antimicrobial and acaricidal activity.

A review of the ethnobotany, contemporary uses, chemistry and pharmacology of the genus Thesium (Santalaceae).

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Many plant species representing the hemi-parasitic genus Thesium play important roles in communities around the globe as evidenced by the numerous ethnobotanical and contemporary uses, and pharmacological activities. However, no attempt has been made to amalgamate and analyze all of the available information. A comprehensive survey is needed to highlight knowledge gaps, as well as to determine the economic importance and commercial potential of the genus. AIMS OF THIS REVIEW: To provide a comprehensive report on the species diversity, geographical distribution, ethnobotany, contemporary uses, chemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of the genus Thesium, as well as to give insights into possible future research opportunities. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Literature on the ethnobotany, contemporary uses, chemistry and pharmacology of Thesium was gathered from standard search engines (Google, Google Scholar, PubMed, SciFinder and Scopus) using the phrase Thesium, as well as generic synonyms. Additional information came from relevant books, theses, patents and label information from herbarium specimens in the National Herbarium in Pretoria, South Africa. Information on geographical distributions was compiled from regional floras, regional revisions, original species descriptions and databases (GBIF, IPNI, Plants of the World online and The Plant List). Scientific names and synonyms were validated through www.plantsoftheworldonline.org. RESULTS: A total of 23 Thesium species, 17 from Africa and six from Asia, were found to have traditional and contemporary uses. Despite the near cosmopolitan distribution of the genus, no uses were recorded for Europe, Australia and North America. Thesium plants are most commonly used as medicines (18 species), functional foods and beverages (seven species), charms (six species) and crafts (three species), but also have several other minor uses. Charm uses were restricted to southern and East Africa, while several contemporary uses such as functional feeds and fodders, growth mediums and fertilizers and veterinary medicine were unique to Asia. Thesium chinense is by far the most utilized and versatile species with a total of 173 uses in nine use categories, followed by T. longifolium with 39 uses in six use categories. No specific trends were observed in the plant parts used. As a medicine Thesium is used to treat 137 ailments, predominantly reproductive and breast (22), respiratory tract (18), degenerative (11), digestive (11) and urinary (10) ailments. Chemical analyses are available for only eight species, with flavonoids, fatty acids and alkaloids as the main compounds. The potential influence of the host plants on the chemistry and pharmacology remains unexplored. The pharmacological activities of two species, T. chinense and T. viride, have been studied, while three other species are reported to be poisonous. Thesium chinense has analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidation, chemopreventive, cytotoxic and other general therapeutic properties, and T. viride anti-bacterial activity. CONCLUSION: This study has highlighted the ethnobotanical, contemporary and pharmacological importance of Thesium and informed possible future research opportunities. While ample information is available on the traditional uses of the richly diverse African Thesium species, the few Asian species dominate the literature on contemporary uses and pharmacology, while relevant literature on species in the rest of the world is altogether lacking. In light of the popularity of Asian species as ingredients in contemporary medicines and products, further research is needed into African species and their uses, including potential commercial uses. As an important medicinal hemi-parasite in both Africa and Asia, the identities of ethnobotanically relevant species and their phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology remain underexplored and require more research attention.

Patterns of Variation and Chemosystematic Significance of Phenolic Compounds in the Genus Cyclopia (Fabaceae, Podalyrieae).

As a contribution towards a better understanding of phenolic variation in the genus Cyclopia (honeybush tea), a collection of 82 samples from 15 of the 23 known species was analysed using liquid-chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (UPLC-HRMS) in electrospray ionization (ESI) negative mode. Mangiferin and isomangiferin were found to be the main compounds detected in most samples, with the exception of C. bowiena and C. buxifolia where none of these compounds were detected. These xanthones were found to be absent from the seeds and also illustrated consistent differences between species and provenances. Results for contemporary samples agreed closely with those based on analysis of a collection of ca. 30-year-old samples. The use of multivariate tools allowed for graphical visualizations of the patterns of variation as well as the levels of the main phenolic compounds. Exclusion of mangiferin and citric acid from the data was found to give better visual separation between species. The use of UPLC-HRMS generated a large dataset that allowed for comparisons between species, provenances and plant parts (leaves, pods, flowers and seeds). Phenetic analyses resulted in groupings of samples that were partly congruent with species but not with morphological groupings within the genus. Although different provenances of the same species were sometimes found to be very variable, Principle Component Analysis (PCA) indicated that a combination of compounds have some (albeit limited) potential as diagnostic characters at species level. 74 Phenolic compounds are presented, many of which were identified for the first time in Cyclopia species, with nine of these being responsible for the separation between samples in the PCAs.

Analysis of Phenolic Compounds in Rooibos Tea (Aspalathus linearis) with a Comparison of Flavonoid-Based Compounds in Natural Populations of Plants from Different Regions.

Tea samples from 17 populations of "wild tea" ecotypes Aspalathus linearis (rooibos tea) and 2 populations of Aspalathus pendula were analyzed. Recent advances in column technology together with high-resolution mass spectrometry were applied to improve resolution, facilitating the identification of several new compounds as well as grouping of the wild tea ecotypes according to their chemical composition. The collisional cross-section data obtained from ion mobility-mass spectrometry is reported for the flavonoids in rooibos for the first time. Enzyme pathways for the synthesis of the unique flavonoids found in rooibos tea are also proposed. A. linearis and A. pendula produce similar combinations of main phenolic compounds, with no diagnostically different discontinuities between populations or species. Northern resprouters (Gifberg and Nieuwoudtville) contain higher phenylpropenoic acid glucoside levels while teas from Wupperthal and surrounding areas were found to contain unique dihydrochalcones (phloridzin and a sieboldin analog), which are reported here for the first time.

Burkholderia dilworthii sp. nov., isolated from Lebeckia ambigua root nodules.

Three strains of Gram-stain-negative, rod-shaped bacteria were isolated from Lebeckia ambigua root nodules and authenticated on this host. Based on the 16S rRNA gene sequence phylogeny, they were shown to belong to the genus Burkholderia, with the representative strain WSM3556(T) being most closely related to Burkholderia caledonica LMG 23644(T) (98.70 % 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity) and Burkholderia rhynchosiae WSM3937(T) (98.50 %). Additionally, these strains formed a distinct group in phylogenetic trees of the housekeeping genes gyrB and recA. Chemotaxonomic data, including fatty acid profiles and analysis of respiratory quinones, supported the assignment of our strains to the genus Burkholderia. Results of DNA-DNA hybridizations, MALDI-TOF MS analysis and physiological and biochemical tests allowed genotypic and phenotypic differentiation of our strains from their nearest neighbour species. Therefore, these strains represent a novel species, for which the name Burkholderia dilworthii sp. nov. is proposed, with the type strain WSM3556(T) ( = LMG 27173(T) = HAMBI 3353(T)).

Ameliorative effect of aspalathin from rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) on acute oxidative stress in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Rooibos leaves and fine stems (Aspalathus linearis; Fabaceae) are increasingly enjoyed as herbal tea, largely in fermented (oxidised) red-brown form, but also in unfermented (unoxidised) green form. Rooibos is rich in antioxidant polyphenols, with the dihydrochalcone, aspalathin, as a major active ingredient. We used Caenorhabditis elegans as model organism to investigate the effect of rooibos extracts against oxidative stress in vivo. In a high glucose environment, C. elegans treated with rooibos extract exhibited an extended lifespan. Furthermore, green rooibos was a more potent antioxidant than red rooibos, probably due to its substantially higher aspalathin content. In addition, rooibos decreased acute oxidative damage caused by the superoxide anion radical generator, juglone, with aspalathin playing a major role in improving the survival rate of C. elegans. Quantitative real-time PCR results demonstrated that aspalathin targets stress and ageing related genes, reducing the endogenous intracellular level of ROS. These findings suggest that rooibos increases stress resistance and promotes longevity under stress, probably mediated via a regulation of the DAF-16/FOXO insulin-like signalling pathway, supporting some of the health claims put forward for rooibos tea.

The phylogenetic significance of the carpophore in Apiaceae.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Fruit structural characters have traditionally been important in the taxonomy of the family Apiaceae. Previous investigations using a limited number of taxa have shown that the carpophore may be especially useful in helping to circumscribe subfamily Azorelloideae. The present study examines, for the first time, carpophore structure in 92 species from 43 genera, representing all subfamilies of Apiaceae, and including all genera assigned to subfamily Azorelloideae. Phylogenetic interpretations are made for the first time, using all available information, and a standard terminology is proposed to describe the various character states found in carpophores. METHODS: Carpophore structure was studied in detail using light microscopy. KEY RESULTS: Carpophores, when present, may be categorized into two main groups (B and C) based mainly on the arrangement of the vascular bundles in transverse section, and further divided into six sub-types according to the length of the carpophore (short in B1 and C1) and whether they are entire (B1-B3 and C1) or bifurcate (B4 and C2). Free carpophores are absent in subfamily Mackinlayoideae, and in tribes Lichtensteinieae and Phlyctidocarpeae, which have two opposite vascular bundles (Group A). Entire carpophores with one or two vascular bundles, or bifurcate carpophores with lateral vascular bundles (arranged side by side within the commissural plane), are the main types characterizing Azorelloideae. The short, hygroscopic carpophores found in Choritaenia are unique in Apiaceae and provide additional evidence for the exclusion of this genus from Azorelloideae. Carpophore type C2 is typical for most Apioideae sensu lato (exceptions are, for example, Arctopus and Alepidea, which have type B2). CONCLUSIONS: A single carpophore and ventral vascular bundles not forming free carpophores are proposed to be the ancestral conditions in Apiaceae, while bifurcate carpophores with opposite vascular bundles are the derived state, present in most Apioideae. Secondary reductions seem to have occurred in several unrelated lineages in all major groups, e.g. many Azorelloideae, several protoapioids (including nearly all members of the tribe Saniculeae) and 29 euapioid genera (e.g. some Oenantheae).

Alkaloidal variation in cissampelos capensis (Menispermaceae).

Cissampelos capensis, commonly known by the Afrikaans name "dawidjies" or "dawidjieswortel", is the most important and best known medicinal plant of the family Menispermaceae used by the Khoisan and other rural people in the western region of South Africa. The main alkaloids in the leaves, stems and rhizomes were isolated and identified. Several of the main compounds were previously found in species of the related genus Antizoma and this similarity indicates that the two genera are closely related if not congeneric. Bulbocapnine (an aporphine alkaloid), dicentrine (an aporphine alkaloid) and salutaridine (a morphinane alkaloid) were the main alkaloids in the leaves, while bulbocapnine, cissacapine, cycleanine and insularine (the last three are bisbenzyltetrahydro-isoquinoline alkaloids) are the major compounds in the stems. The rhizome contains mostly bisbenzyltetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids, with 12-O-methylcurine, cissacapine and cycleanine as the main ones. Alkaloids appear to be quite variable within different plant parts and different provenances, as confirmed by the difference in alkaloid patterns between coastal and inland forms of Cissampelos capensis (the morphinane alkaloid salutaridine, for example, is the major leaf alkaloid along the coast but is practically absent from the inland form of the species). The variety of alkaloids identified may contribute to the medicinal value of this species. The data on alkaloidal variation in the species has potential value and practical applications in chemotaxonomy, toxicology and pharmacognosy.

False paracarpy in Seemannaralia (Araliaceae): from bilocular ovary to unilocular fruit.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Seemannaralia appears to be fundamentally different from all other Araliaceae in the presence of a well-developed symplicate zone in its gynoecium, as well as in the ovule insertion in the symplicate zone (rather than in the cross-zone). The present investigation re-examined the floral structure of Seemannaralia with emphasis on the morphology and evolution of its gynoecium. METHODS: Flowers and fruits of Seemannaralia gerrardii at various developmental stages were examined using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. KEY RESULTS: Ovaries in the flowers of Seemannaralia are bilocular. Each ovary locule corresponds to a carpel whose ascidiate part is distinctly longer than the plicate part. Each carpel contains one fertile ovule attached to the cross-zone, and one sterile ovule as well. The fruit is unilocular: its central cavity is occupied by a single large seed. In the course of fruit development, the growth of one ovule stops while another ovule develops into the mature seed. When this ovule outgrows the available space in the locule, the septum is ruptured, forming a united cavity of two carpels. CONCLUSIONS: Despite literature data, the synascidiate zone is well developed in the gynoecium of Seemannaralia, and the ovules are attached to the cross-zone. Its preanthetic and anthetic gynoecium has nearly the same structure as gynoecia of most other Araliaceae. The Seemannaralia fruit resembles the paracarpous gynoecium but its ground plan is very different because the central cavity is formed by mechanical rupture of the septum. The term 'pseudoparacarpy' ('false paracarpy') is proposed to describe this condition, which has not been reported to date for indehiscent fruits in any taxa other than Seemannaralia. In this genus, the pseudoparacarpy has probably resulted from a decrease in seed number in the course of the transition from zoochory to anemochory.

Antiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of Albertisia delagoensis.

Leaves and rhizome methanol extracts of Albertisia delagoensis tested positive against Plasmodium falciparum, with a very low cytotoxic activity in leaves against the Graham cell line.

Determination of atractyloside in Callilepis laureola using solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-atmospheric pressure ionisation mass spectrometry.

A selective analytical method based on high-performance liquid chromatography, combined with atmospheric pressure ionisation mass spectrometry, was developed for the detection of atractyloside. The analysis was performed on an Xterra Phenyl column utilising a gradient elution profile and a mobile phase consisting of 10 mM aqueous ammonium acetate buffer-methanol-acetonitrile. The calibration curve of the method (1 ng/ml-160 microg/ml) was best described by a second order polynomial function (r2 = 0.998) but displayed good linearity in the range of 100 ng/ml-1 microg/ml (r2 = 0.999). The limit of detection for the atractyloside standard was determined and found to be 100 pg/ml and the limit of quantification of atractyloside in tuber matrix was found to be 250 pg/ml. The relative standard deviation of the method was on average below 5% (n = 8). The method was successfully applied to the analysis of Callilepis laureola tubers and unknown powdered samples for the presence of atractyloside.