Moderate low-cost modifications in diet prevent a substantial number of deaths and mitigate environmental impacts in Brazil.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to estimate the health, economic, and environmental impacts of moderate simulated interventions on dietary intake in Brazil. METHODS: Data on food price and consumption were obtained from three nationwide surveys. Baseline dietary intake was estimated for 33,859 individuals aged 25 years and older. Counterfactual intakes were based on six hypothetical intervention scenarios, by changing the weekly frequency and serving size in low or high consumers of fruit and vegetables (FV), milk, whole grains, red and processed meats, and sugar-sweetened beverages. For each scenario, we estimated the attributable number of deaths and disability-adjusted life years (DALY), monetary cost, environmental impacts (14 midpoint indicators), and environmentally-mediated health impacts. RESULTS: Compared with the baseline intake and cost, the most expensive intervention (+ 8.3%) was to increase FV intake (+ 125 g), resulting in a 1.2% reduction in all-cause mortality (16,307 deaths/year). The cheapest (- 9.9%) was to reduce red and processed meat intake (- 40 g), resulting in a 1.1% reduction in all-cause mortality (14,272 deaths/year). The combined intervention was, on average, 3.7% cheaper than the baseline cost, resulting in an increase in diet cost for 30% of the population (45-22% in the lower- and higher-income groups); all-cause mortality would be reduced by 3.8% (49,488 deaths/year). Interventions targeting red and processed meats would reduce emissions and resource use by 35-55%, in addition to reducing 2300 DALYs/year. CONCLUSION: A meaningful number of deaths can be avoided and environmental impacts reduced through moderate and potentially affordable diet modifications.

Avoidable diet-related deaths and cost-of-illness with culturally optimized modifications in diet: The case of Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Dietary risk factors have an important impact on premature deaths and disabilities due to non-communicable diseases. In this study, we perform diet optimization to design different dietary scenarios taking into account food prices and preferences and evaluate the number of deaths that would be prevented as well as the economic burden and costs from the health system that would be saved in Brazil. METHODS: We used dietary intake and food prices data from the nationwide Household Budget Survey (HBS) and the National Dietary Survey (NDS) 2017-2018. Linear programming models were performed to design five scenarios which different sets of key diet modifications at the least deviation from the baseline consumption. Comparative risk assessment models were used to estimate the health impacts of optimized dietary changes on mortality and the economic impacts on morbidity (hospitalizations) and premature deaths. RESULTS: The optimized diets were, on average, more expensive than the baseline diets, varying from Int$ (international dollar) 0.02/day to 0.52/day/adult. The number of deaths prevented or postponed varied from 12,750 (10,178-15,225) to 57,341 (48,573-66,298) according to the different scenarios. The diet modifications would save from 50 to 219 million in hospitalizations and from 239 to 804 million yearly in productivity losses with the reduction of premature deaths. CONCLUSION: A substantial number of deaths and costs due to hospitalization and productivity losses would be avoidable even with small changes in diets. However, even the cheapest intervention might be prohibitive for deprived families, yet subsidies and social policies could contribute to improving diets.

Harmonized US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1988-2018 for high throughput exposome-health discovery.

The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) provides data on the health and environmental exposure of the non-institutionalized US population. Such data have considerable potential to understand how the environment and behaviors impact human health. These data are also currently leveraged to answer public health questions such as prevalence of disease. However, these data need to first be processed before new insights can be derived through large-scale analyses. NHANES data are stored across hundreds of files with multiple inconsistencies. Correcting such inconsistencies takes systematic cross examination and considerable efforts but is required for accurately and reproducibly characterizing the associations between the exposome and diseases. Thus, we developed a set of curated and unified datasets and accompanied code by merging 614 separate files and harmonizing unrestricted data across NHANES III (1988-1994) and Continuous (1999-2018), totaling 134,310 participants and 4,740 variables. The variables convey 1) demographic information, 2) dietary consumption, 3) physical examination results, 4) occupation, 5) questionnaire items (e.g., physical activity, general health status, medical conditions), 6) medications, 7) mortality status linked from the National Death Index, 8) survey weights, 9) environmental exposure biomarker measurements, and 10) chemical comments that indicate which measurements are below or above the lower limit of detection. We also provide a data dictionary listing the variables and their descriptions to help researchers browse the data. We also provide R markdown files to show example codes on calculating summary statistics and running regression models to help accelerate high-throughput analysis and secular trends of the exposome. [Table: see text].

Dietary iron intake over two post-fortification periods in Brazil: data from the National Dietary Surveys 2008-2009 and 2017-2018.

We aimed to assess the dietary Fe intake and the prevalence of inadequate Fe intake over two post-fortification periods in Brazil. The intake was analysed according to sex, life stage, geographic region and stratum of family income per capita. Excluding pregnant and lactating women, this population-based study included 32 749 and 44 744 participants aged ≥ 10 years from the National Dietary Survey-Brazilian Household Budget Surveys 2008-2009 and 2017-2018, respectively. The National Cancer Institute method was used to predict usual dietary Fe intakes. The prevalence of Fe intake inadequacy was estimated following a probabilistic approach for women of childbearing age or with the Estimated Average Requirement cut-off point method. Over an interval of 10 years, the mean Fe intake remained almost unchanged for most sex-age groups, except for women of childbearing age. In this specific group, the prevalence of Fe intake inadequacy was > 20 % in 2008-2009 and have increased to > 25 % in 2017-2018, with the highest reductions in mean Fe intake found in the highest income strata and richest Brazilian regions. Meanwhile, the highest prevalence of Fe intake inadequacy (> 40 %) occurred among the poorest women aged 31-50 years from the lowest family income stratum, irrespective of the study period. Beans were the main Fe source, while fortified breads, pastas, pizzas, cakes and cookies contributed approximately 40 % of the Fe intake. The results provide important insights into the long-standing dietary impacts of food fortification, which can guide future (re)formulation of effective public health strategies to combat Fe deficiency.

Reaching culturally acceptable and adequate diets at the lowest cost increment according to income level in Brazilian households.

OBJECTIVE: To identify food choices allowing the fulfillment of nutritionally adequate diets resembling actual food patterns at the lowest cost achievable for the Brazilian population, stratified by income level. METHODS: Food consumption and prices were obtained from the Household Budget Survey (n = 55,970 households) and National Dietary Survey (n = 32,749 individuals). The sample was stratified into capitals of the states and further by income levels according to the official minimum wage (totaling 108 geographic-economic strata, or GES). Linear programming models were performed for each GES in order to find the lowest cost of diets that meet a set of nutritional constraints. In order to find realistic diets, constraints referring to preferences were introduced in the models allowing optimized food quantities to depart progressively from the current intake for each food and food group. The impact of meeting each target nutrient was assessed by performing models removing each nutrient at the time. RESULTS: The observed and optimized diet costs were US$2.16 and US$2.58 per capita/day. The highest cost increment and the greatest food shifts were observed in the lowest income level. The nutrient adequacy was reached by mainly increasing fruits and vegetables, beans, fish and seafood, dairy, nuts, and eggs; and reducing red and processed meat, chicken, margarine and butter, cookies, cakes, sugar-sweetened beverages, and sauces. As the departure from the current intakes increase, the optimized healthy diet cost reduced. In the lowest income, the lowest cost increment was about US$ 0.10; in the higher income levels, it tended to be cheaper than the observed cost. Calcium was the most expensive nutrient to meet adequacy. CONCLUSION: Nutritionally adequate diets are possible but costlier than the observed.

Prevalence of inadequate intake of folate after mandatory fortification: results from the first National Dietary Survey in Brazil.

PURPOSE: Our aim was to estimate the prevalence of folate inadequacy (POFI) according to life stage, socio-economic status, and geographical regions after the mandatory fortification of wheat and maize flour in Brazil. METHODS: This was a population-based study. Data from two non-consecutive food records from the National Dietary Survey/Household Budget Survey 2008-2009 were used to estimate the usual dietary folate intake in µg dietary folate equivalents (DFEs). The National Cancer Institute method was used to account for within-person variance and the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) cut-point method was used to calculate the POFI. The survey included 32,749 individuals, 15,700 males and 17,049 females, over 10 years old. Pregnant women, lactating women, and individuals with unreliable energy intake data were excluded. RESULTS: Overall POFI was 31.5% and mean dietary folate intake was 411.1 µg DFE. The lowest POFI occurred in the youngest age group of 10-13 years in both sexes, while the highest POFI was observed in the group ≥ 71 years. In women of childbearing age, POFI was around 32%. The lowest income strata had the highest POFI. The most developed regions (South and Southeast) had the lowest POFI compared to less developed regions. CONCLUSIONS: Our data show that folate inadequacy is still prevalent in Brazil mainly in low-income groups and less developed regions. Actions need to be taken to ensure that women of childbearing age, who presented a high prevalence of inadequate folate intake, achieve the recommended daily intake of 400 µg DFEs.

Food Consumption According to the Days of the Week - National Food Survey, 2008-2009.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluate the variations in energy, nutrients, and food groups intake between days of the week and weekend days in the Brazilian population. METHODS: We used data from the first National Food Survey (2008-2009) of a one-day food log of a representative sample of the Brazilian population aged 10 years or older (n = 34,003). For the analyses, we considered the sample weights and the effect of the study design. The mean (and standard deviations) and frequencies (%) of energy, nutrients, and food groups consumption were estimated for weekdays (Monday to Friday) and weekend (Saturday and Sunday), we then estimated the differences according to the days of the week for the population strata analyzed. RESULTS: The average daily energy intake for the weekend was 8% higher than the one observed for weekdays. The average percentage contribution of carbohydrate to the daily energy intake was higher during the week compared to Saturday and Sunday (56.3% versus 54.1%, p < 0.01). The inverse was observed for averages of the contribution to the daily intake of energy from total fat (26.8% versus 28.4%), saturated fat (9.1% versus 9.9%) and trans fat (1.4% versus 1.6%). The most significant changes between weekdays and weekend days were observed for eggs, sugar-added beverages, puff snacks and chips, beans, and pasta. During weekends, the frequency of beverage with added sugar consumption increased by 34%, the amount consumed increased by 42%, and the contribution to energy intake increased by 62% when compared to weekdays. CONCLUSIONS: The Brazilian population increases energy intake and unhealthy food markers on weekends compared to weekdays.

Correction of diet-outcome association for day-to-day variance in dietaray intake: performance evaluation by simulation. / Correção de medidas de associação pela variação do dia a dia no consumo alimentar: avaliação do desempenho por meio de simulação.

The use of one or a few 24-hour recalls (24hR) to measure dietary exposure in models to estimate diet-outcome association leads to attenuation of the measure of association and a decrease in the test's power. This is due to daily variation in food intake. The measure of association can be corrected using regression calibration and requires at least one repetition of the 24hR in a subsample of the study population. However, the calibration's performance and the precision of the corrected coefficients can vary according to the characteristics of the study to which it is applied. The aim of this study is to evaluate the performance of correction in different research scenarios in relation to the estimated measure of association and its precision. A population (n = 1,000) was simulated with information on food intake for 200 days and an outcome with an association defined with usual intake (mean for the 200 intake days). The scenarios evaluated were: (a) 100%, 60%, 40%, and 20% of the sample with 2 intake days; (b) individuals with 2, 3, 4, and 5 24hR; and (c) populations with 1,000, 600, and 300 individuals. The coefficients were estimated for 300 random combinations of intake days; mean corrected coefficients were similar to the true coefficient. Precision was lower in all the scenarios: the probability of finding a significant association (when true) varied from 0.47 to 0.29 (100% to 20% with repetition, respectively); 0.47 to 0.78 (2 to 5 days); and 0.47 to 0.15 (1,000 to 300 individuals).

Perception of food consumed at home and dietary intake: A nationwide study from Brazil.

Perception of food consumed is a key factor in acknowledging the need for behavioral change to improve diet quality. We analyzed family dietary intake according to the head of household's perception of satisfaction with food consumed by the family. Households (n = 13,351) that participated in the Brazilian Household Budget Survey and the National Dietary Survey were classified as satisfied or dissatisfied with the food consumed in the home. We compared the family dietary intake of the two groups considering their socio-demographic characteristics. Satisfied families (n = 4429) reported statistically higher intake (in grams/1000 kcal) of vegetables (47.3 vs 33.7), fruits (46.9 vs 21.4), sugar-sweetened beverages (118 vs 71.7), milk and dairy (57.9 vs 34.6), and ultra-processed products (18.6 vs 9.8); and lower intake of rice (86.2 vs 112), beans (91.7 vs 136), and meat (76.5 vs 84.0) when compared to dissatisfied families (n = 1717). Among satisfied families, in the youngest group we found lower consumption of fruits and higher intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and ultra-processed products when compared to the oldest group. Also among satisfied families, those in the highest per capita income group presented higher intake of fruits and lower intake of beans than those in the lowest income group. Satisfied families in the highest income group also consumed more fruits and less beans than dissatisfied families in the same income group. Socio-demographic characteristics may influence perception of satisfaction with food consumed and potentially influence the success of public health efforts to offer nutrition guidance for families satisfied with diets that may or may not be comprised of healthy food and beverages.

Breastfeeding duration and associated factors between 1960 and 2000.

OBJECTIVE: To describe a historical series on the median duration of breastfeeding in a population of mothers whose children were born from the 1960s onwards, identifying factors associated with the interruption of breastfeeding in each decade. METHODS: Data were analyzed from the Pró-Saúde Study, a longitudinal epidemiological investigation started in 1999 among technical and administrative employees of a university in the state of Rio de Janeiro. Breastfeeding duration was collected in two study phases: Phase 1 (1999), and phase 4 (2011-2012). Of these, those who had at least one child and reported the duration of breastfeeding for the first child were selected (n=1539). To analyze the duration of breastfeeding, survival curves were constructed using the Kaplan-Meier method and the effect of covariates on the duration of breastfeeding was estimated by Cox regression model. RESULTS: It was found that the median duration of breastfeeding was higher in the 1990s and 2000s and lower in the 1970s, compared to the 1960s. In addition, there was an association between higher income and maternal age with breastfeeding interruption, which was focused in the 1970s. CONCLUSION: There was shorter duration of breastfeeding in the 1970s compared to the 1960s. Increased duration and prevalence of breastfeeding from the 1970s onwards coincided with the national trend and the promotion of this practice since 1980.

Brazilians' experiences with iron fortification: evidence of effectiveness for reducing inadequate iron intakes with fortified flour policy.

OBJECTIVE: To assess Fe intake, calculate the prevalence of inadequate Fe intake and identify food contributors to Fe intake during 2003 and 2008 in a population-based study, reflecting before and after the mandatory fortification of flour with Fe. DESIGN: Two cross-sectional population-based studies conducted in 2003 and 2008. Dietary intake was evaluated by 24 h recall and the Software for Intake Distribution Estimation (PC-SIDE) was used to estimate within-person variance and prevalence of inadequate Fe intake. The statistical analysis was conducted considering the complex survey design. SETTING: São Paulo, Brazil. SUBJECTS: Adolescents, adults and elderly adults of both sexes, interviewed in 2003 (n 2386) and 2008 (n 1661). RESULTS: The Fe intake mean increased in all populations in the post-fortification period. A reduction of over 90 % was observed in the prevalence of inadequate Fe intake among men for all age groups analysed. When evaluating women, despite the substantial reduction (over 63 %), prevalence of inadequate Fe intake remained high (34 %) in those aged 19-50 years. Major food contributors to Fe intake before fortification were beans, beef, vegetables and dairy. There was an alteration in the contributors in the post-fortification period, with bread, beef, beans and biscuits as main contributors. CONCLUSIONS: The mandatory fortification with Fe significantly furthered the reduction in the prevalence of inadequacy, except among women of reproductive age, and changed the main contributors to this nutrient in the studied population. Therefore, monitoring of Fe addition in flour is essential to assess compliance to the fortified flour policy and to guarantee a safe Fe intake for all the population.

Performance of statistical methods to correct food intake distribution: comparison between observed and estimated usual intake.

There are statistical methods that remove the within-person random error and estimate the usual intake when there is a second 24-h recall (24HR) for at least a subsample of the study population. We aimed to compare the distribution of usual food intake estimated by statistical models with the distribution of observed usual intake. A total of 302 individuals from Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) answered twenty, non-consecutive 24HR; the average length of follow-up was 3 months. The usual food intake was considered as the average of the 20 collection days of food intake. Using data sets with a pair of 2 collection days, usual percentiles of intake of the selected foods using two methods were estimated (National Cancer Institute (NCI) method and Multiple Source Method (MSM)). These estimates were compared with the percentiles of the observed usual intake. Selected foods comprised a range of parameter distributions: skewness, percentage of zero intakes and within- and between-person intakes. Both methods performed well but failed in some situations. In most cases, NCI and MSM produced similar percentiles between each other and values very close to the true intake, and they better represented the usual intake compared with 2-d mean. The smallest precision was observed in the upper tail of the distribution. In spite of the underestimation and overestimation of percentiles of intake, from a public health standpoint, these biases appear not to be of major concern.

Caloric compensation for sugar-sweetened beverages in meals: A population-based study in Brazil.

Sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption can cause positive energy balance, therefore leading to weight gain. A plausible biological mechanism to explain this association is through weak caloric compensation for liquid calories. However, there is an ongoing debate surrounding SSB calorie compensation. The body of evidence comes from a diversity of study designs and highly controlled settings assessing food and beverage intake. Our study aimed to test for caloric compensation of SSB in the free-living setting of daily meals. We analyzed two food records of participants (age 10 years or older) from the 2008-2009 National Dietary Survey (Brazil, N = 34,003). We used multilevel analyses to estimate the within-subject effects of SSB on food intake. Sugar-sweetened beverage calories were not compensated for when comparing daily energy intake over two days for each individual. When comparing meals, we found 42% of caloric compensation for breakfast, no caloric compensation for lunch and zero to 22% of caloric compensation for dinner, differing by household per capita income. In conclusion, SSB consumption contributed to higher energy intake due to weak caloric compensation. Discouraging the intake of SSB especially during lunch and dinner may help reduce excessive energy intake and lead to better weight management.

A quantile regression approach can reveal the effect of fruit and vegetable consumption on plasma homocysteine levels.

INTRODUCTION: A reduction in homocysteine concentration due to the use of supplemental folic acid is well recognized, although evidence of the same effect for natural folate sources, such as fruits and vegetables (FV), is lacking. The traditional statistical analysis approaches do not provide further information. As an alternative, quantile regression allows for the exploration of the effects of covariates through percentiles of the conditional distribution of the dependent variable. OBJECTIVE: To investigate how the associations of FV intake with plasma total homocysteine (tHcy) differ through percentiles in the distribution using quantile regression. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional population-based survey was conducted among 499 residents of Sao Paulo City, Brazil. The participants provided food intake and fasting blood samples. Fruit and vegetable intake was predicted by adjusting for day-to-day variation using a proper measurement error model. We performed a quantile regression to verify the association between tHcy and the predicted FV intake. The predicted values of tHcy for each percentile model were calculated considering an increase of 200 g in the FV intake for each percentile. RESULTS: The results showed that tHcy was inversely associated with FV intake when assessed by linear regression whereas, the association was different when using quantile regression. The relationship with FV consumption was inverse and significant for almost all percentiles of tHcy. The coefficients increased as the percentile of tHcy increased. A simulated increase of 200 g in the FV intake could decrease the tHcy levels in the overall percentiles, but the higher percentiles of tHcy benefited more. CONCLUSIONS: This study confirms that the effect of FV intake on lowering the tHcy levels is dependent on the level of tHcy using an innovative statistical approach. From a public health point of view, encouraging people to increase FV intake would benefit people with high levels of tHcy.

Children's nutrient intake variability is affected by age and body weight status according to results from a Brazilian multicenter study.

A major challenge in nutritional studies focusing on children is estimating "true" intake because the type and amount of foods eaten change throughout growth and development, thereby affecting the variability of intake. The present study investigated the hypothesis that age and body weight status affect the ratio of the within- and between-subject variation of intakes (VR) as well as the number of days of dietary assessment (D) of energy and nutrients. A total of 2,981 Brazilian preschoolers aged 1-6 years were evaluated in a cross-sectional study. Weighed food records and estimated food records were used to assess dietary intake inside and outside of school. Within- and between-subject variations of intakes were estimated by multilevel regression models. VR and D were calculated according to age group and body weight status. VR ranged from 1.17 (calcium) to 8.70 (fat) in the 1- to 2-year-old group, and from 1.47 (calcium) to 8.95 (fat) in the 3- to 6-year-old group. Fat, fiber, riboflavin, folate, calcium, phosphorus, and iron exhibited greater VR and D in the 3- to 6-year-old group. For energy, carbohydrates, and protein, both within- and between-subject variation increased with increasing age. In both body weight groups, calcium showed the lowest VR. Fat showed the highest VR in nonoverweight/obese children (9.47), and fiber showed the highest VR in overweight/obese children (8.74). For most nutrients, D = 7 was sufficient to correctly rank preschoolers into tertiles of intake. In conclusion, age and body weight status affected the within- and between-subject variation and the VR of energy and nutrient intakes among Brazilian preschool children.

[Folic acid intake before and after mandatory fortification: a population-based study in São Paulo, Brazil]. / Ingestão de folato nos períodos pré e pós-fortificação mandatória: estudo de base populacional em São Paulo, Brasil.

This study analyzed folic acid intake before and since mandatory fortification. Dietary data were collected by 24-hour recall in a health survey in São Paulo (ISA-Capital) in 2003 and 2007-2008, stratifying the population according to life stage and gender. Estimated average requirement (EAR) and tolerable upper intake level (UL) were used to assess intake. Prevalence of inadequate folic acid intake decreased in all groups, especially adolescents and adult males (72% to < 1% and 76% to 6%, respectively) but remained high in adult women (38%). Beans were the main source of folic acid before fortification. With fortification, bread became the main source, but beans remained important. Fortification was successful (increased intake within safe levels), but it raised concerns about the high proportion in the target group (adult women) who still fail to meet the recommended intake.

Are plasma homocysteine concentrations in Brazilian adolescents influenced by the intake of the main food sources of natural folate?

BACKGROUND: Folate, a B vitamin, has been associated with a reduced concentration of plasma homocysteine (phcy), a marker of cardiovascular disease. The contribution of fruits and vegetables (FV) and other natural folate-rich foods to folate intake and folate status in Brazilian adolescents has hardly been determined. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the intake of FV and beans and its association with the concentration of phcy in adolescents. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional population-based study with a complex sample survey, with 198 adolescents who completed two 24-hour dietary recalls, a food frequency questionnaire, and a fasting blood draw. Usual dietary intake estimates were derived applying the Multiple Source Method. Three different generalized linear models with a gamma distribution were developed for each sex to evaluate the relationship between phcy and tertiles of FV intake as well as to evaluate the relationship between phcy and tertiles of FV and bean intake. RESULTS: No association was found between phcy concentration and FV intake or between phcy and FV and beans. Serum folate and female sex were inversely related to phcy. CONCLUSION: Phcy was not related to FV or FV and beans; this may be attributable to a low intake of these food groups.

[Use of dietary supplements among inhabitants of the city of São Paulo, Brazil]. / Uso de suplementos dietéticos entre residentes do Município de São Paulo, Brasil.

This cross-sectional population-based study in the city of São Paulo, Brazil, aimed to assess prevalence of use of dietary supplements according to life stage and socio-demographic and behavioral characteristics. Prevalence of supplement use was low (6.35%) among the 865 individuals interviewed, with a higher prevalence among women (PR = 1.88; 95%CI: 1.08-1.25). However, no statistically significant difference was found for the other variables. Combined vitamin and mineral supplements headed the list. Intake of supplements is still low in this population. However, the current weak evidence of benefits from regular use and the risks of excessive consumption justify monitoring the use of supplements.

Inadequate nutrient intake among the Brazilian elderly: National Dietary Survey 2008-2009.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of inadequate nutrient intake in the Brazilian elderly. METHODS: This study was based on data from the National Dietary Survey, part of the Household Budget Survey 2008-2009. All individuals aged 60 and over, totaling 4,322 individuals, were included. Individual food intake was obtained from food records from two non-consecutive days. The habitual intake for each nutrient was estimated by the National Cancer Institute method, in which sex and region were included as covariates. The prevalence of inadequate nutrient intake was estimated stratified by sex and region using the EAR method to define cut-off points. RESULTS: A high prevalence of inadequate intake (> 50%) of vitamins E, D and A, calcium, magnesium and pyridoxine was observed for both sexes. In all regions, 100% inadequate vitamin E intake was observed. Vitamin D showed almost 100% inadequate intake except in the North region. The prevalence of inadequate vitamin A intake was higher than 70% in the North, Northeast, and Midwest regions. Among the minerals evaluated, calcium and magnesium showed the highest prevalence of inadequate intake (> 80%) in all regions. CONCLUSIONS: The present study found a high prevalence of inadequate intake of nutrients recognized as being protective against chronic diseases among the Brazilian elderly.

Prevalence and correlates of calcium and vitamin D status adequacy in adolescents, adults, and elderly from the Health Survey-São Paulo.

OBJECTIVE: In addition to the importance of adequate calcium and vitamin D status for health and prevention of several chronic diseases, a high prevalence of both nutrient inadequacy and 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25[OH]D) insufficiency has been observed. The aim of this study was to estimate calcium and vitamin D status correlates and adequacy from a population-based epidemiologic study. METHODS: This is a subsample of a cross-sectional study of a representative sample of individuals living in São Paulo that includes 636 participants. A 24-h dietary record and a blood sample were collected. Nutrient adequacy was estimated by adjusting for the within-person variance of the nutrient intake. Serum concentration of 25(OH)D was measured by high-performance liquid chromatography and considered adequate when ≥ 50 nmol/L. RESULTS: Calcium and vitamin D intake decrease according to life stages in both men and women, and increases with family income and educational level. The prevalence of calcium intake inadequacy is higher than 70% and almost 100% for vitamin D. The highest 25(OH)D concentration was observed in the fall-51.7 (20.4) nmol/L-and lowest in the summer-30.1 (8.8) nmol/L. Sex, body mass index, physical activity, alcohol and smoking habits, life stage, family income, skin color, waist circumference, and season of the year could explain 22% of the variability of 25(OH)D. CONCLUSIONS: The present study demonstrates important inadequacies regarding the nutritional status of calcium and vitamin D and indicates an urgent need not only for health professionals, but also for government and food industries to undertake new initiatives that could result in a real improvement in terms of calcium and vitamin D nutrition.