Qualitative Behavioural Assessment of bonobo emotional expressivity across observer groups and zoo housing environments.

Human evaluation of animal emotional expressivity can inform animal welfare. Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA) has been applied to domesticated and some non-domesticated animals, but its use in primates is limited despite their emotional expressivity. We aimed to develop and apply a QBA for bonobos (Pan paniscus) through two consecutive studies. We applied Free Choice Profiling (FCP) and the Fixed List methodology, respectively, in Study 1 and 2, and invited students and bonobo experts to rate video clips of zoo-living bonobos of different sexes and age classes, and before and after moving to a new enclosure. In Study 1, students described dimension 1 as ranging from 'quiet/calm' to 'angry/active' and dimension 2 from 'sad/anxious' to 'happy/loving'. Experts described dimension 1 ranging from 'quiet/relaxed' to 'nervous/alert' and dimension 2 from 'nervous/bored' to 'playful/happy'. Using a fixed list of descriptors, informed by findings from Study 1, students in Study 2 described dimension 1 as ranging from 'quiet/calm' to 'agitated/frustrated', and dimension 2 from 'sad/stressed' to 'happy/positively engaged'. Experts described dimension 1 as ranging from 'quiet/calm' to 'active/excited', and dimension 2 from 'sad/bored' to 'happy/positively engaged'. Students scored adults as more 'calm/quiet' and experts scored subadults as more 'happy/positively engaged'. Additionally, experts in Study 2 rated bonobos as more 'active/excited' in their new enclosure. Reliability was moderate to good for the dimensions. Additionally, animal-directed empathy of observers influenced QBA scores. This is the first time, FCP has been successfully used as a method to study primate emotional expressivity. Our findings show the promise of employing QBA in primate studies and in industry, with validation of additional metrics to enable its use for welfare-monitoring purposes.

The Effect of Long Term Captivity on Stress Levels in Anolis carolinensis Lizards.

The effect of long term captivity is a factor that is important for all research utilizing wild caught animals. Despite the fact that it can be considered to be one of the most fundamental potential sources of stress in captivity, it has received a low amount of interest in recent research on lizards. Given the wide variety in ecology and life history among lizards species, it would make sense to investigate the effect of long term captivity on wild caught lizards on a broader scale. In this study we investigated the effect of long term captivity (four months) on the physiology and behavior of male and female Anolis carolinensis lizards. Our results showed no negative effects of four months of captivity on physiological and behavioral measurements in male A carolinensis lizards. Similar results for females were found for all measurements except body mass and tail width. Here our results indicated a potential negative effect of four months of captivity on body mass and tail width in females.

Isolation of pregnancy-associated glycoproteins from placenta of the American bison (Bison bison) at first half of pregnancy.

This paper describes the successful purification and characterisation of pregnancy-associated glycoproteins (PAG) extracted from placenta (3-4 months) of American bisons (Amb). Chorionic AmbPAG proteins were purified from foetal cotyledonary tissues (CT) and liquid cotyledonary-carrying proteins (LCP) leaking from damaged cells. Our protocols successfully indicated the usefulness of AmbPAG protein identification, especially from LCP fraction. The AmbPAGs were extracted, precipitated and eluted during DEAE cellulose chromatography. The richest protein fractions were further chromatographed on VVA (Vicia villosa agglutinin affinity column), then characterised by mono- and bi-dimensional electrophoresis, Western blot and N-terminal amino acid (aa) sequence. After being transferred to PVDF membranes, three selected VVA-purified AmbPAG isoforms differing in molecular masses and isoelectric points (Ip 4-4.6) were selected for sequencing. One identified N-terminal 25aa sequence of AmbPAG72kDa CT form was identified as completely new (RGSNLTSLPLQNVIDLFYVGNITIG). Two other AmbPAG proteins purified from different sources (74kDa CT and 76kDa LCP forms; RGSNLTIHPLRNIRDIFYVGNITIG) were identical or corresponded to N-terminus of various bovine PAGs (boPAG). The two AmbPAGs (74kDa CT and 76kDa LCP) revealed identical micro-sequence to boPAG7; and were similar mainly to bovine PAG4, -6, -15 and -17 precursors that were identified by full-length sequencing derived from cDNA cloning. The novel sequence of the AmbPAG (72kDa CT) was related to some boPAG and various other ruminant PAG precursors (caprine and ovine). All three identified AmbPAG sequences were also relatively similar to mature forms of purified native boPAG(56-75kDa) proteins. This is the first report indicating aa sequences of native AmbPAG proteins purified from placenta (CT and LCP) of bison species. The N-terminal sequences of the AmbPAGs have been deposited in the EMBL-EBI database (UniProtKB; Accession Nos.: P84916, P84917 and P84918).

Endocrine and behavioral observations during transition of non-breeding into breeding season in female American bison (Bison bison).

This study provides endocrine data in relation to behavioral events during the transition of the non-breeding into the breeding season in American bison (Bison bison). Fecal progesterone metabolite patterns (20-oxo-P) were obtained in 13 adult female American bison and hormonal data were correlated with behavioral observations; i.e. copulation, male tending, female tail-up behavior and gestation length. Based on fecal progesterone metabolite patterns, the breeding season started between the middle of July and early August. Predictable short cycles reflected the transition from non-breeding to the breeding season; the luteal phase of these cycles was 4.10+/-0.86 days. Copulations and female tail-up behavior were reliably associated with the hormonally detected ovulation. Male tending behavior was more loosely associated with hormonally detected ovulation. The observed hormonal pattern in the study females indicated that 9 of 10 pregnant cows conceived during the second ovulatory period in the breeding season. One other cow conceived during her third ovulatory period, and one cow did not conceive until later in the breeding season by beginning of October. Gestation duration was on average 266.30+/-1.00 days. In summary, this study confirmed that the bison is a seasonally polyestrous species; the transition from the non-breeding into the breeding season was characterized by short cycles with low progesterone metabolite values.

Social structures in Pan paniscus: testing the female bonding hypothesis.

Based on previous research in captivity, bonobos, Pan paniscus, have been called a female-bonded species. However, genetic and behavioural data indicate that wild females migrate. Bonding between these unrelated females would then be in contradiction with socio-ecological models. It has been argued that female bonding has been overemphasized in captive bonobos. We examine patterns of proximity, grooming and support behaviour in six well established captive groups of bonobos. We find that female bonding was not a typical characteristic of all captive bonobo groups. In only two groups there was a trend for females to prefer proximity with other females over association with males. We found no evidence that following or grooming between females was more frequent than between males and unrelated females or between males. Only in coalitions, females supported each other more than male-female or male-male dyads. We also investigated five mother-son pairs. Grooming was more frequent among mothers and sons than in any other dyad, but sons did not groom their mothers more than males groomed unrelated females. Mothers groomed their sons, or provided more support to them than females groomed or supported unrelated males. Thus, while bonds between females were clearly present, intersexual relations between males and either unrelated females or their mothers are of more, or equal importance.

Peering is not a formal indicator of subordination in bonobos (Pan paniscus).

It has been suggested that peering behavior in bonobos is a formal signal acknowledging social dominance status. We investigated whether peering meets the published criteria for a formal signal of subordination in five captive groups of bonobos. The degree of linearity in the set of peering relationships was significantly high in all study groups, and a linear rank order was found. However, unidirectionality was low, and there was little correspondence between the peering order and the agonistic dominance rank. Therefore, peering does not satisfy the criteria of a formal subordination indicator. We also studied the relation between peering and agonistic dominance rank, age, and sex. Animals directed peering significantly more often at high-ranking animals in four of the groups. We suggest that peering is indirectly related to dominance rank by the resource-holding potential of individuals. In contexts where dominant individuals can monopolize resources, peerers may direct their attention at those high-ranking animals. When resources are distributed more evenly, high-ranking animals may peer down the hierarchy. We speculate on the reasons why a formal dominance or subordination signal appears to be absent in bonobos.

Sexual competition in a group of captive bonobos (Pan paniscus).

We describe the occurrence of sexual competition, expressed as harassment of sexual interactions in a captive group of bonobos. We monitored all aggressive and pestering interventions during sexual interactions of three captive adult females, one adolescent, and three adult males. The study period covered two complete menstrual cycles for each female, with continuous daily observations. There was relatively little overt sexual competition by the males, in analogy with other studies. Most male interventions occurred towards interactions with the alfa female. The alfa female performed the most intense and the highest number of interventions towards the sexual interactions of the other females. The data provide evidence for female intra-sexual competition in this female dominant species.