Distribution of Ixodes ricinus ticks and prevalence of tick-borne encephalitis virus among questing ticks in the Arctic Circle region of northern Norway.

This study investigated the geographical distribution of Ixodes ricinus and prevalence of the tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in northern Norway. Flagging for questing I. ricinus ticks was performed in areas ranging from Vikna in Nord-Trøndelag County, located 190km south of the Arctic Circle (66.3°N), to Steigen in Nordland County, located 155km north of the Arctic Circle. We found that ticks were abundant in both Vikna (64.5°N) and Brønnøy (65.1°N). Only a few ticks were found at locations ∼66°N, and no ticks were found at several locations up to 67.5°N. Real-time PCR (RT-PCR) analyses of the collected ticks (nymphs and adults) for the presence of TBEV revealed a low prevalence (0.1%) of TBEV among the nymphs collected in Vikna, while a prevalence of 0% to 3% was found among nymphs collected at five locations in Brønnøy. Adult ticks collected in Vikna and Brønnøy had higher rates of TBEV infection (8.6% and 0%-9.0%, respectively) than the nymphs. No evidence of TBEV was found in the few ticks collected further north of Brønnøy. This is the first report of TBEV being detected at locations up to 65.1°N. It remains to be verified whether viable populations of I. ricinus exist at locations north of 66°N. Future studies are warranted to increase our knowledge concerning tick distribution, tick abundance, and tick-borne pathogens in northern Norway.

2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) induces genetic changes in murine intestinal tumours and cells with ApcMin mutation.

2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) is one of the mutagenic heterocyclic amines derived from cooked meat. In previous animal studies, spontaneous tumour formation in B6(Min/+) mice was associated with somatic loss of the wild-type Apc+ allele by loss of the entire chromosome 18 or by recombination. The objective of this study was to examine genetic changes caused by PhIP-exposure in a mouse intestinal cell line and in tumours from hybrid mice by keeping track of the chromosomes carrying the two Apc alleles. We transformed the SV40 T-immortalised intestinal epithelial cell line IMCE, derived from the B6(Min/+) mice by exposure to N-OH-PhIP, and studied the effect on Apc status and chromosome 18. Eighteen transformed cultures were obtained and all of them had retained the Apc+ allele. Five of seven transformed cultures were tumorigenic after implantation in nude mice. Chromosomal analysis of these five cultures and the parent IMCE cell line showed that the IMCE cells were near-tetraploid with an average of 77 chromosomes/cell, while the tumorigenic cell cultures were all triploid to hyper-triploid with a range of 61-69 chromosomes/cell. The number of copies of chromosome 18 was about four in the IMCE line and this copy number was retained in the transformed lines derived from IMCE. Changes in chromosome 18 and Apc during tumour development in vivo were examined in spontaneously formed and PhIP-induced intestinal tumours from two hybrid mice strains, i.e. B6(Min/+) - a murine FAP model - crossed with either AKR/J or A/J. We evaluated the allelic status of Apc, and the heterogenic microsatellite markers D18Mit19 and D18Mit4, located at the upper and lower ends of chromosome 18, respectively. In tumours from untreated animals, instability in the D18Mit19 and Apc was observed. Upon PhIP exposure, the B6(Min/A+) hybrid mouse tumours differed distinctly in genetic profile from those obtained from untreated animals and we detected three genetically different tumour groups, all of which had apparently retained Apc+. One group had allelic balance between the Apc(Min) and Apc+, the second had allelic imbalance between the Apc and D18Mit4 alleles, indicative of chromosomal stability in the first group and instability in the lower end of chromosome 18 in the second group, respectively. The third group showed variable allelic status of the three markers. A similar change in genetic profile was also seen in intestinal tumours of PhIP-exposed B6(Min/AKR+) hybrid mice, but it was less pronounced. Chromosomal breaks and/or recombinational events could be alternative explanations for the observed allelic imbalances in chromosome 18 markers in intestinal tumours from PhIP-exposed mice.

Intestinal tumours induced by the food carcinogen 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine in multiple intestinal neoplasia mice have truncation mutations as well as loss of the wild-type Apc(+) allele.

C57BL/6J-Min/+ (multiple intestinal neoplasia) is a murine model for familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP), where the mice are heterozygous for a nonsense Apc(Min) (adenomatous polyposis coli) mutation, and therefore develop numerous spontaneous adenomas in the small intestine and colon. Neonatal exposure of Min/+ mice to the food carcinogen 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) (eight subcutaneous injections of 25 or 50 mg/kg PhIP to pups or 50 mg/kg PhIP to lactating dams) markedly increased (2--9-fold) the number of intestinal tumours, especially in the small intestine. We examined whether the Apc gene was affected in small intestinal and colonic tumours induced by PhIP. In spontaneous tumours formed in these mice, the main mechanism for tumour induction is loss of the wild-type Apc(+) allele, i.e. loss of heterozygosity (LOH). Also in the PhIP-induced tumours, this is a major mechanism, since large fractions of PhIP-induced tumours had LOH in APC: However, mechanisms other than LOH must also prevail, since a lower frequency of LOH was found in the small intestinal tumours from male mice exposed to PhIP either via breast milk (65%) or by direct injection (68%), compared with the untreated controls (92%). Tumours that had retained the wild-type Apc(+) allele were further analysed for presence of truncated Apc proteins with in vitro synthesized protein (IVSP) assay. Truncated Apc proteins, indicating truncation mutations in exon 15 of the Apc gene, were detected in 20% (8 of 40) of the tumours not showing LOH from the small intestine after PhIP exposure, all in segment 2 (codons 686--1217). Seventeen percent (2 of 12) of the colonic tumours had a truncated Apc protein in segment 3 (codons 1099--1693). Importantly, no truncated proteins were detected in tumours from unexposed mice with apparently retained wild-type Apc(+) allele. These results show that PhIP induces intestinal tumours in the Min/+ mice both by causing LOH and truncation mutations in the wild-type Apc(+) allele.

Neonatal exposure to the food mutagen 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine via breast milk or directly induces intestinal tumors in multiple intestinal neoplasia mice.

We examined whether the food mutagen 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) could increase intestinal tumorigenesis in neonatal C57BL/6J-Min/+ mice, a murine model for familial adenomatous polyposis. Min/+ mice are heterozygous for a nonsense mutation in the adenomatous polyposis coli gene and spontaneously develop multiple intestinal adenomas, primarily in the small intestine. Neonatal Min/+ mice (3-6 days old) were exposed to PhIP via breast milk from lactating dams given 8 s.c. injections of 50 mg/kg PhIP three times a week or to 8 s.c. injections of 25 or 50 mg/kg PhIP directly, over the same period. At the age of 11 weeks, the number, diameter and location of the intestinal tumors were scored. Remarkably, a 2- to 4-fold increase in the number of small intestinal tumors was seen in Min/+ mice exposed to PhIP via breast milk (P < 0.001). To our knowledge, this is the first time PhIP has been reported to induce tumors following exposure via breast milk from PhIP-exposed dams. Upon direct exposure to 50 mg/kg PhIP, a 6- to 9-fold increase in the number of small intestinal tumors was observed (P < 0.001). The diameter of the PhIP-induced small intestinal tumors was slightly increased (P < 0.001). In the colon, a 3- to 4-fold increase in the number of tumors was seen in Min/+ mice exposed to PhIP via breast milk (P = 0. 004). Direct exposure to 50 mg/kg PhIP caused a 2- to 6-fold increase in the number of colonic tumors (P = 0.014). The PhIP-induced colonic tumors were located more distally and displayed a smaller diameter than the tumors from the controls (P < 0.05). In contrast to a previous study, where PhIP showed only a moderate tumorigenic effect in adult Min/+ mice, the present study demonstrates a strong tumorigenic effect of PhIP in neonatally exposed Min/+ mice, even after exposure via breast milk from PhIP-exposed dams.

[Heterocyclic amines in cooked meat]. / Heterosykliske aminer i stekt kjøtt.

The age adjusted incidence of cancer has increased on average 1% annually since the beginning of this century, and cancer is now one of the most prevalent causes of death. Diet is suggested to be responsible for about 30-70% of all cancer cases. The heterocyclic amines (HCA) produced during processing of meats and fish at temperatures above 150 degrees C are candidate dietary causes. Amounts in food range from less than 1 ng/g in cooked meat or fish up to over 300 ng/g in well done flame grilled chicken breast meat. The most important parameters determining HCA amounts are cooking temperature and cooking time. 20 different HCAs are identified from cooked or grilled meats and fish. HCAs are causing cancer in various organs in mice, rats and cynomolgus monkeys. It is of interest to note that in rats, PhIP, the most abundant heterocyclic amine in cooked food, causes colon, prostate and mammary cancer, which are the most prevalent cancers in humans. Epidemiological studies show a correlation between intake of red meat and colon, mammary and prostate cancer. Based on the adverse effects of HCA, a reduced intake is recommended and practical advice on how this can be done is given.

[Prevention of femoral neck fractures in the Stovner district of Oslo]. / Forebygging av lårhalsbrudd i Oslo, Stovner bydel.

By collecting data on hip fractures among people over 66 years of age in the Stovner district of Oslo, we were able to evaluate a programme to prevent fall accidents in the elderly population. The programme has several approaches. It includes information for both the elderly and the personnel working with them on accident risk factors and identification and removal of risk factors at home. The incidence of hip fractures among those over 66 years of age in the Stovner district was reduced from 30/1,000 in 1990 to 16/1,000 in 1996. There was a significant downward trend during the whole period (p < 0.001). A similar reduction was not seen for the rest of Oslo. We believe that the programme has contributed to reducing the number of hip fractures. However, as several approaches were tried simultaneously, it is difficult to decide whether one particular approach was more efficient than the others.

Heterocyclic aromatic amines in human urine following a fried meat meal.

In a search for suitable biomarkers for human dietary exposure to heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), we have investigated the concentrations of three common fried food mutagens in food and urine after consumption of a fried meat meal. In this connection we developed a method for the determination of HAAs and have investigated the common fried red meat HAAs 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-beta]pyridine (PhIP), 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx) and 2-amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (DiMeIQx). Eight volunteers participated in the study, each consuming a meal of fried minced beef patties (295 g), boiled potatoes, and a green salad. Urine was collected for two 12-hr periods prior to and following the meal. HAAs were determined in cooked meat and in untreated and acid hydrolysed urine by a series of liquid/liquid extractions, followed by Blue cotton adsorption and finally by a novel derivatized technique for gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The primary amino groups were derivatized by acylation with heptafluorobutyric acid anhydride, and the resulting amide methylated using diazomethane. Phenolic hydroxyl groups were also methylated by this procedure, making it possible to detect hydroxylated HAAs, possible metabolites or constituents of the fried meat. 4'-Hydroxy-PhIP ¿2-amino-1-methyl-6-(4-hydroxyphenyl)imidazo[4,5-beta]pyridine¿ (4'-OH-PhIP) was indeed found in meat as well as in urine. The contents of PhIP, MeIQx and DiMeIQx in meat were 4.0 +/- 2.6, 3.5 +/- 0.9 and 0.3 +/- 0.1 ng g-1 (mean +/- SD, n = 4), from which the mean amounts ingested were calculated to be 1180, 1030 and 90 ng, respectively. Total amounts of HAAs in the 0-24-hr post-meal untreated urine (and percent of ingested dose) were 6-23 ng PhIP (0.5-2%) and 10-63 ng MeIQx (1-6%). In hydrolysed urine, the levels of HAAs were higher, totalling 24-100 ng PhIP (2-8.5%) and 133-329 ng of MeIQx (13-32%). DiMeIQx was below detection limit in all urine samples. Judged from our study, there were rather large inter-individual variations in the amounts of excreted HAAs, possibly caused by variations in the activities of enzymes taking part in HAA metabolism.

Effects of enzyme induction on the distribution of the food carcinogen 2-amino-3,8-dimethyl-imidazo[4,5-ss]-quinoxaline (MeIQx) in Ah-receptor- responsive- and Ah-receptor-non-responsive mice.

The distribution of the food carcinogen 2-amino-3,8-dimethyl-imidazo[4,5-ss]quinoxaline (MeIQx) was studied in Ah-responsive-(C57BL/6J) and Ah-non-responsive mice (DBA/2N). The time dependent organ distribution of radioactivity after 14C-MeIQx (10 mg/kg) administration in C57BL/6J showed that at day 4 most of the radioactivity had been excreted and that the remaining radioactivity was found in liver, kidneys, lungs and spleen. C57BL/6J bound more radioactivity in the kidneys than the DBA/2N strain whereas approximately the same amount was left in the liver and lungs in both strains 4 days after MeIQx exposure. Liver microsomes of the two strains had approximately the same ability to activate MeIQx in the Ames Salmonella assay. beta-Naphthoflavone treatment of the animals greatly increased microsomal activating capacity, but only in the C57BL/6J strain. Isosafrole treatment of the animals only slightly increased the activating capacity, but particularly with microsomes from the DBA/2N strain, displacement of the putative inhibitory isosafrole metabolite greatly increased their activating capacity. In the whole animals pretreatment with beta-naphthoflavone, which induces P450IA only in the C57BL/6J strain, did not significantly change the amount of retained radioactivity in any of the strains. Isosafrole induces only P450IA2, the major N2-hydroxylating enzyme of heterocyclic amines, in both strains. Such pretreatment reduced the amount retained in the kidney of both strains whereas it reduced the retained amount of radioactivity in the liver with about 60% only in the Ah-non-responsive strain (DBA/2N). The effect of isosafrole did not persist when MeIQx was given three days after the last injection.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Structure-mutagenicity relationships of four amino-imidazonaphthyridines and imidazoquinolines.

We tested four isomeric imidazonaphthyridines and one imidazoquinoline compound for mutagenic activity in the Ames/Salmonella mutagenicity assay, using strain TA98 and strain YG1024, an analogue of strain TA98 with elevated O-acetyltransferase levels. Their potency was related to calculated electronic parameters. Five compounds with a linear arrangement of 3 rings showed a positive response in strain YG1024. Compound 2 (1-methylimidazo[4,5-b][1,7]naphthyridin-2-amine) is the most mutagenic in both strains, giving specific activities of about 200 and 30 revertants per microgram in strains YG1024 and TA98, respectively. Three of the compounds were weak mutagens, giving a positive dose-response only in strain YG1024, with 3-5 revertants per microgram. A higher response of all five compounds in strain YG1024 as opposed to TA98 indicates that they require O-acetyltransferase activity for their metabolism. Mutagenic potencies in strain YG1024 were positively correlated to the energy of the LUMO (lowest unoccupied molecular orbital) of the nitrenium ion.

Mutagenic activity of three synthetic isomers of the food carcinogen 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ) in the Ames test.

The mutagenic activities of three isomers of IQ, with the pyridine N-atom at different positions, were measured in the Ames test with Salmonella typhimurium TA98 and enzymatic activation (S9). All test compounds showed lower activities than IQ. Interestingly, the amount of protein in the S9 mix does not seem to influence the mutagenic activity of the '8-IQ' isomer.

Mutagenic activity of the methyl and phenyl derivatives of the food mutagen 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (IQx) in the Ames test.

The mutagenic activity of 15 different mono-, di-, tri-, and tetramethyl derivatives of the food mutagen IQx (2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline), one diphenyl derivative of IQx and two phenyl derivatives of 5-MeIQx (2-amino-3,5-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline) were studied in the Ames test with Salmonella typhimurium TA98 and enzymatic activation (S9). The number and positioning of the methyl groups strongly affected the mutagenic activity. The phenylated compounds showed weak mutagenic potency. It seems that both resonance stabilization of the nitrenium ion and steric effects are important in determining mutagenic potency.

Mutagenicity, creatine and nutrient contents of pan fried meat from various animal species.

The mutagenic activity in extracts of fried meat from 16 different animal species was studied in Salmonella typhimurium TA98. In each experiment, 1 meat sample together with a standard beef sample was fried, and the mutagenicity was expressed relative to the beef sample. All meat samples showed less mutagenic activity than beef. The contents of creatine, creatinine, water, protein, carbohydrate and fat in the meat samples were analyzed, but mutagenicity was not correlated with the concentration of any of these constituents. Beef meat treated with creatinase to remove creatine produced reduced mutagenic activity. Possibly a threshold concentration of creatine is necessary to give a high mutagenic response.

Reversible binding of the cooked food mutagen MeIQx to lignin-enriched preparations from wheat bran.

The binding of the mutagen 3,8-dimethyl-3H-imidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline-2-amine (MeIQx) to various fibre preparations from wheat bran was studied. The physical structures of wheat bran and lignin-enriched preparations were determined by scanning electron microscopy. With increasing mutagen concentration from 0.5-16 micrograms/ml, the fraction of MeIQx bound to cellulase-treated lignin was nearly constant, for a certain lignin density. The binding between cellulase-treated lignin and MeIQx was reversible. Incubation temperature influenced the rate at which the equilibrium between lignin and MeIQx was established, but had less effect on the equilibrium itself. With increasing fibre densities and a constant mutagen concentration, complete binding was apparently reached at a high fibre density. This was illustrated by plotting the data according to Scatchard. Increased binding of the MeIQx was obtained with increased enrichment of lignin in different fibre preparations.