Neurospora intermedia from a traditional fermented food enables waste-to-food conversion.

Fungal fermentation of food and agricultural by-products holds promise for improving food sustainability and security. However, the molecular basis of fungal waste-to-food upcycling remains poorly understood. Here we use a multi-omics approach to characterize oncom, a fermented food traditionally produced from soymilk by-products in Java, Indonesia. Metagenomic sequencing of samples from small-scale producers in Western Java indicated that the fungus Neurospora intermedia dominates oncom. Further transcriptomic, metabolomic and phylogenomic analysis revealed that oncom-derived N. intermedia utilizes pectin and cellulose degradation during fermentation and belongs to a genetically distinct subpopulation associated with human-generated by-products. Finally, we found that N. intermedia grew on diverse by-products such as fruit and vegetable pomace and plant-based milk waste, did not encode mycotoxins, and could create foods that were positively perceived by consumers outside Indonesia. These results showcase the traditional significance and future potential of fungal fermentation for creating delicious and nutritious foods from readily available by-products.

RNA-Seq Data Analysis: A Practical Guide for Model and Non-Model Organisms.

RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) has emerged as a powerful tool for assessing genome-wide gene expression, revolutionizing various fields of biology. However, analyzing large RNA-seq datasets can be challenging, especially for students or researchers lacking bioinformatics experience. To address these challenges, we present a comprehensive guide to provide step-by-step workflows for analyzing RNA-seq data, from raw reads to functional enrichment analysis, starting with considerations for experimental design. This is designed to aid students and researchers working with any organism, irrespective of whether an assembled genome is available. Within this guide, we employ various recognized bioinformatics tools to navigate the landscape of RNA-seq analysis and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different tools for the same task. Our protocol focuses on clarity, reproducibility, and practicality to enable users to navigate the complexities of RNA-seq data analysis easily and gain valuable biological insights from the datasets. Additionally, all scripts and a sample dataset are available in a GitHub repository to facilitate the implementation of the analysis pipeline. © 2024 The Authors. Current Protocols published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Analysis of data from a model plant with an available reference genome Basic Protocol 2: Gene ontology enrichment analysis Basic Protocol 3: De novo assembly of data from non-model plants.

Argonaute and Dicer are essential for communication between Trichoderma atroviride and fungal hosts during mycoparasitism.

Trichoderma species are known for their mycoparasitic activity against phytopathogenic fungi that cause significant economic losses in agriculture. During mycoparasitism, Trichoderma spp. recognize molecules produced by the host fungus and release secondary metabolites and hydrolytic enzymes to kill and degrade the host's cell wall. Here, we explored the participation of the Trichoderma atroviride RNAi machinery in the interaction with six phytopathogenic fungi of economic importance. We determined that both Argonaute-3 and Dicer-2 play an essential role during mycoparasitism. Using an RNA-Seq approach, we identified that perception, detox, and cell wall degradation depend on the T. atroviride-RNAi when interacting with Alternaria alternata, Rhizoctonia solani AG2, and R. solani AG5. Furthermore, we constructed a gene co-expression network that provides evidence of two gene modules regulated by RNAi, which play crucial roles in essential processes during mycoparasitism. In addition, based on small RNA-seq, we conclude that siRNAs regulate amino acid and carbon metabolism and communication during the Trichoderma-host interaction. Interestingly, our data suggest that siRNAs might regulate allorecognition (het) and transport genes in a cross-species manner. Thus, these results reveal a fine-tuned regulation in T. atroviride dependent on siRNAs that is essential during the biocontrol of phytopathogenic fungi, showing a greater complexity of this process than previously established.IMPORTANCEThere is an increasing need for plant disease control without chemical pesticides to avoid environmental pollution and resistance, and the health risks associated with the application of pesticides are increasing. Employing Trichoderma species in agriculture to control fungal diseases is an alternative plant protection strategy that overcomes these issues without utilizing chemical fungicides. Therefore, understanding the biocontrol mechanisms used by Trichoderma species to antagonize other fungi is critical. Although there has been extensive research about the mechanisms involved in the mycoparasitic capability of Trichoderma species, there are still unsolved questions related to how Trichoderma regulates recognition, attack, and defense mechanisms during interaction with a fungal host. In this work, we report that the Argonaute and Dicer components of the RNAi machinery and the small RNAs they process are essential for gene regulation during mycoparasitism by Trichoderma atroviride.

Genome-wide fitness profiling reveals molecular mechanisms that bacteria use to interact with Trichoderma atroviride exometabolites.

Trichoderma spp. are ubiquitous rhizosphere fungi capable of producing several classes of secondary metabolites that can modify the dynamics of the plant-associated microbiome. However, the bacterial-fungal mechanisms that mediate these interactions have not been fully characterized. Here, a random barcode transposon-site sequencing (RB-TnSeq) approach was employed to identify bacterial genes important for fitness in the presence of Trichoderma atroviride exudates. We selected three rhizosphere bacteria with RB-TnSeq mutant libraries that can promote plant growth: the nitrogen fixers Klebsiella michiganensis M5aI and Herbaspirillum seropedicae SmR1, and Pseudomonas simiae WCS417. As a non-rhizosphere species, Pseudomonas putida KT2440 was also included. From the RB-TnSeq data, nitrogen-fixing bacteria competed mainly for iron and required the siderophore transport system TonB/ExbB for optimal fitness in the presence of T. atroviride exudates. In contrast, P. simiae and P. putida were highly dependent on mechanisms associated with membrane lipid modification that are required for resistance to cationic antimicrobial peptides (CAMPs). A mutant in the Hog1-MAP kinase (Δtmk3) gene of T. atroviride showed altered expression patterns of many nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) biosynthetic gene clusters with potential antibiotic activity. In contrast to exudates from wild-type T. atroviride, bacterial mutants containing lesions in genes associated with resistance to antibiotics did not show fitness defects when RB-TnSeq libraries were exposed to exudates from the Δtmk3 mutant. Unexpectedly, exudates from wild-type T. atroviride and the Δtmk3 mutant rescued purine auxotrophic mutants of H. seropedicae, K. michiganensis and P. simiae. Metabolomic analysis on exudates from wild-type T. atroviride and the Δtmk3 mutant showed that both strains excrete purines and complex metabolites; functional Tmk3 is required to produce some of these metabolites. This study highlights the complex interplay between Trichoderma-metabolites and soil bacteria, revealing both beneficial and antagonistic effects, and underscoring the intricate and multifaceted nature of this relationship.

A Global Analysis of Photoreceptor-Mediated Transcriptional Changes Reveals the Intricate Relationship Between Central Metabolism and DNA Repair in the Filamentous Fungus Trichoderma atroviride.

Light provides critical information for the behavior and development of basically all organisms. Filamentous fungi sense blue light, mainly, through a unique transcription factor complex that activates its targets in a light-dependent manner. In Trichoderma atroviride, the BLR-1 and BLR-2 proteins constitute this complex, which triggers the light-dependent formation of asexual reproduction structures (conidia). We generated an ENVOY photoreceptor mutant and performed RNA-seq analyses in the mutants of this gene and in those of the BLR-1, CRY-1 and CRY-DASH photoreceptors in response to a pulse of low intensity blue light. Like in other filamentous fungi BLR-1 appears to play a central role in the regulation of blue-light responses. Phenotypic characterization of the Δenv-1 mutant showed that ENVOY functions as a growth and conidiation checkpoint, preventing exacerbated light responses. Similarly, we observed that CRY-1 and CRY-DASH contribute to the typical light-induced conidiation response. In the Δenv-1 mutant, we observed, at the transcriptomic level, a general induction of DNA metabolic processes and strong repression of central metabolism. An analysis of the expression level of DNA repair genes showed that they increase their expression in the absence of env-1. Consistently, photoreactivation experiments showed that Δenv-1 had increased DNA repair capacity. Our results indicate that light perception in T. atroviride is far more complex than originally thought.

Danger signals activate a putative innate immune system during regeneration in a filamentous fungus.

The ability to respond to injury is a biological process shared by organisms of different kingdoms that can even result in complete regeneration of a part or structure that was lost. Due to their immobility, multicellular fungi are prey to various predators and are therefore constantly exposed to mechanical damage. Nevertheless, our current knowledge of how fungi respond to injury is scarce. Here we show that activation of injury responses and hyphal regeneration in the filamentous fungus Trichoderma atroviride relies on the detection of two danger or alarm signals. As an early response to injury, we detected a transient increase in cytosolic free calcium ([Ca2+]c) that was promoted by extracellular ATP, and which is likely regulated by a mechanism of calcium-induced calcium-release. In addition, we demonstrate that the mitogen activated protein kinase Tmk1 plays a key role in hyphal regeneration. Calcium- and Tmk1-mediated signaling cascades activated major transcriptional changes early following injury, including induction of a set of regeneration associated genes related to cell signaling, stress responses, transcription regulation, ribosome biogenesis/translation, replication and DNA repair. Interestingly, we uncovered the activation of a putative fungal innate immune response, including the involvement of HET domain genes, known to participate in programmed cell death. Our work shows that fungi and animals share danger-signals, signaling cascades, and the activation of the expression of genes related to immunity after injury, which are likely the result of convergent evolution.

Global transcriptional analysis suggests Lasiodiplodia theobromae pathogenicity factors involved in modulation of grapevine defensive response.

BACKGROUND: Lasiodiplodia theobromae is a fungus of the Botryosphaeriaceae that causes grapevine vascular disease, especially in regions with hot climates. Fungi in this group often remain latent within their host and become virulent under abiotic stress. Transcriptional regulation analysis of L. theobromae exposed to heat stress (HS) was first carried out in vitro in the presence of grapevine wood (GW) to identify potential pathogenicity genes that were later evaluated for in planta expression. RESULTS: A total of 19,860 de novo assembled transcripts were obtained, forty-nine per cent of which showed homology to the Botryosphaeriaceae fungi, Neofusicoccum parvum or Macrophomina phaseolina. Three hundred ninety-nine have homology with genes involved in pathogenic processes and several belonged to expanded gene families in others fungal grapevine vascular pathogens. Gene expression analysis showed changes in fungal metabolism of phenolic compounds; where genes encoding for enzymes, with the ability to degrade salicylic acid (SA) and plant phenylpropanoid precursors, were up-regulated during in vitro HS response, in the presence of GW. These results suggest that the fungal L-tyrosine catabolism pathway could help the fungus to remove phenylpropanoid precursors thereby evading the host defense response. The in planta up-regulation of salicylate hydroxylase, intradiol ring cleavage dioxygenase and fumarylacetoacetase encoding genes, further supported this hypothesis. Those genes were even more up-regulated in HS-stressed plants, suggesting that fungus takes advantage of the increased phenylpropanoid precursors produced under stress. Pectate lyase was up-regulated while a putative amylase was down-regulated in planta, this could be associated with an intercellular growth strategy during the first stages of colonization. CONCLUSIONS: L. theobromae transcriptome was established and validated. Its usefulness was demonstrated through the identification of genes expressed during the infection process. Our results support the hypothesis that heat stress facilitates fungal colonization, because of the fungus ability to use the phenylpropanoid precursors and SA, both compounds known to control host defense.

The interaction of fungi with the environment orchestrated by RNAi.

The fungal kingdom has been key in the investigation of the biogenesis and function of small RNAs (sRNAs). The discovery of phenomena such as quelling in Neurospora crassa represents pioneering work in the identification of the main elements of the RNA interference (RNAi) machinery. Recent discoveries in the regulatory mechanisms in some yeast and filamentous fungi are helping us reach a deeper understanding of the transcriptional and post-transcriptional gene-silencing mechanisms involved in genome protection against viral infections, DNA damage and transposon activity. Although most of these mechanisms are reasonably well understood, their role in the physiology, response to the environment and interaction of fungi with other organisms had remained elusive. Nevertheless, studies in fungi such as Mucor circinelloides, Magnaporthe oryzae, Cryptococcus neoformans, Trichoderma atroviride, Botrytis cinerea and others have started to shed light on the relevance of the RNAi pathway. In these fungi gene regulation by RNAi is important for growth, reproduction, control of viral infections and transposon activity, as well as in the development of antibiotic resistance and interactions with their hosts. Moreover, the increasing number of reports of the discovery of microRNA-like RNAs in fungi under different conditions highlights the importance of fungi as models for understanding adaptation to the environment using regulation by sRNAs. The goal of this review is to provide the reader with an up-to-date overview of the importance of RNAi in the interaction of fungi with their environment.