Antimicrobial resistance profile of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from patients, healthcare workers, and the environment in a tertiary hospital in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Staphylococcus aureus infection and colonization in patients may be transmitted to healthcare providers and the environment and subsequently cause healthcare-associated infections in other patients. Pathogenic S. aureus strains produce virulence factors, such as Panton-Valentine Leukocidin (PVL), that contribute to the severity of infections and aid in their spread. The emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is additional concern with respect to S. aureus infection. In this study, the virulence genes and antibiotic resistance profiles of S. aureus were characterized from patients' clinical isolates, healthcare workers' (HCWs') nasal colonization screenings, and the environment at a tertiary healthcare hospital in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. A total of 365 samples were collected from September 2021 to September 2022: 73 patients' clinical specimens, 202 colonization screenings from HCWs, and 90 hospital environment's swabs. Fifty-one (25.2%) HCW and 10/90 (11.1%) environment S. aureus isolates were identified. Among the 134 isolates, 10 (7.5%) were methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). Three (4.1%), five (9.8%), and two (20.0%) of the MRSA isolates were identified from the patients, HCWs, and the environment, respectively. Overall, 118 (88.1%) were ampicillin and penicillin resistant; 70 (52.2%) were trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole resistant; and 28 (20.9%) were erythromycin resistant. S. aureus isolates from patients were more resistant to antibiotics than isolates from HCWs or the hospital environment (p<0.05). A total of 92/134 (68.6%) isolates possessed the lukfF-PV gene, which was identified in 62 (85.0%), 26 (51.0%), and 4 (40.0%) of the patient, HCWs, and the environment, respectively. The proportion of lukfF-PV gene containing S. aureus isolated from patient samples was statistically significant. Four (40.0%) of the MRSA isolates also had the lukfF-PV gene. The identification of highly AMR and virulence factors from patients, HCWs and the environment is concerning. Further studies are needed to identify potential transmission links and improve infection prevention and control.

Factors Associated with Uptake of Routine Measles-Containing Vaccine Doses among Young Children, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia, 2021.

Recommended vaccination at nine months of age with the measles-containing vaccine (MCV1) has been part of Ethiopia's routine immunization program since 1980. A second dose of MCV (MCV2) was introduced in 2019 for children 15 months of age. We examined MCV1 and MCV2 coverage and the factors associated with measles vaccination status. A cross-sectional household survey was conducted among caregivers of children aged 12-35 months in selected districts of Oromia Region. Measles vaccination status was determined using home-based records, when available, or caregivers' recall. We analyzed the association between MCV1 and MCV2 vaccination status and household, caregiver, and child factors using logistic regression. The caregivers of 1172 children aged 12-35 months were interviewed and included in the analysis. MCV1 and MCV2 coverage was 71% and 48%, respectively. The dropout rate (DOR) from the first dose of Pentavalent vaccine to MCV1 was 22% and from MCV1 to MCV2 was 46%. Caregivers were more likely to vaccinate their children with MCV if they gave birth at a health facility, believe that their child had received all recommended vaccines, and know the required number of vaccination visits and doses. MCV2 coverage was low, with a high measles dropout rate (DOR). Caregivers with high awareness of MCV and its schedule were more likely to vaccinate their children. Intensified demand generation, defaulter tracking, and vaccine-stock management should be strengthened to improve MCV uptake.

Laboratory capacity expansion: lessons from establishing molecular testing in regional referral laboratories in Ethiopia.

Respiratory viruses contribute to high morbidity and mortality in Africa. In 2020, the Ohio State University's Global One Health Initiative, in collaboration with the Ethiopian Public Health Institute and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, took action to strengthen Ethiopia's existing respiratory virus surveillance system through decentralization of laboratory testing and scale-up of national and regional capacity for detecting respiratory viruses. In August 2022, four regional laboratories were established, thereby raising the number of reference laboratories conducting respiratory virus surveillance to five. This article highlights lessons learned during implementation and outlines processes undertaken for laboratory scale-up and decentralization.

Applicability of selected Brighton Collaboration case definitions in low-resource settings: A prospective hospital-based active surveillance in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

INTRODUCTION: Standardizing case definitions for priority vaccine safety conditions facilitates uniform evaluation and consolidation of data obtained from different settings. The Brighton Collaboration case definitions (BCCD) were created to support this harmonization and enable classification from level 1 (most certain) to level 5 (not a case) of certainty. Assessing the performance of BCCD in practice is critical, particularly in resource-limited settings, where many new vaccines may be introduced without prior monitoring in high-income countries. We assessed the performance of BCCD in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, as applicable to COVID-19 and other vaccines. METHODS: Active surveillance was conducted at Tikur Anbessa Specialized Hospital, the largest referral hospital in Ethiopia. During June 1, 2022-May 31, 2023, three trained physicians prospectively identified patients eligible for COVID-19 vaccination (regardless of vaccine receipt) who presented with one or more of eleven pre-specified adverse events of special interest (AESI) from the emergency department and inpatient wards. Standardized data collection forms were used to capture patient information and assign level of certainty (LOC), regardless of vaccination status for COVID-19. We conducted descriptive analysis to characterize cases and the LOCs reached for each AESI. RESULTS: We detected 203 AESI cases. The most detected conditions were thrombosis and thromboembolism (n = 100, 49 %) and generalized convulsions (n = 38, 19 %). Ninety-six percent of the cases were confirmed at levels 1-3 (n = 187) or level 5 (n = 9) LOC. Non-classifiable (level 4) cases were observed for pericarditis (n = 2), encephalitis (n = 2), myelitis (n = 2), and generalized convulsion (n = 1). CONCLUSION: The BCCD were successfully applied in > 95 % of cases in a large referral hospital in Ethiopia, with generalized convulsion, pericarditis, and encephalomyelitis as the exceptions. We recommend further evaluation in other low-resource settings, particularly in rural or non-referral hospitals, to gain additional insights into performance of these definitions for revision or adaptation, as needed.

Regional and temporal variations in COVID-19 cases and deaths in Ethiopia: Lessons learned from the COVID-19 enhanced surveillance and response.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic is one of the most devastating public health emergencies of international concern to have occurred in the past century. To ensure a safe, scalable, and sustainable response, it is imperative to understand the burden of disease, epidemiological trends, and responses to activities that have already been implemented. We aimed to analyze how COVID-19 tests, cases, and deaths varied by time and region in the general population and healthcare workers (HCWs) in Ethiopia. METHODS: COVID-19 data were captured between October 01, 2021, and September 30, 2022, in 64 systematically selected health facilities throughout Ethiopia. The number of health facilities included in the study was proportionally allocated to the regional states of Ethiopia. Data were captured by standardized tools and formats. Analysis of COVID-19 testing performed, cases detected, and deaths registered by region and time was carried out. RESULTS: We analyzed 215,024 individuals' data that were captured through COVID-19 surveillance in Ethiopia. Of the 215,024 total tests, 18,964 COVID-19 cases (8.8%, 95% CI: 8.7%- 9.0%) were identified and 534 (2.8%, 95% CI: 2.6%- 3.1%) were deceased. The positivity rate ranged from 1% in the Afar region to 15% in the Sidama region. Eight (1.2%, 95% CI: 0.4%- 2.0%) HCWs died out of 664 infected HCWs, of which 81.5% were from Addis Ababa. Three waves of outbreaks were detected during the analysis period, with the highest positivity rate of 35% during the Omicron period and the highest rate of ICU beds and mechanical ventilators (38%) occupied by COVID-19 patients during the Delta period. CONCLUSIONS: The temporal and regional variations in COVID-19 cases and deaths in Ethiopia underscore the need for concerted efforts to address the disparities in the COVID-19 surveillance and response system. These lessons should be critically considered during the integration of the COVID-19 surveillance system into the routine surveillance system.

Zonular instability-associated morphologic features in eyes with primary angle closure disease using the swept-source anterior segment - optical coherence tomography system.

BACKGROUND: This study aims to investigate the morphologic features of the crystalline lens in Primary Angle Closure Disease (PACD) patients with zonular instability during cataract surgery using the swept-source CASIA 2 Anterior Segment-Optical Coherence Tomography (AS-OCT) system. METHODS: A total of 398 eyes (125 PACD eyes with zonular instability, 133 PACD eyes with zonular stability, and 140 cataract patient controls) of 398 patients who underwent cataract surgery combined or not glaucoma surgery between January 2021 and January 2023 were enrolled. The crystalline lens parameters were measured by CASIA2 AS-OCT. Then, logistic regression was performed to evaluate the risk factors associated with zonular instability. RESULTS: The results revealed that PACD eyes had a more anterior lens equator position, a steeper anterior curvature of lens, shorter Axial Length (AL), shallower Anterior Chamber Distance (ACD), higher Lens Vault (LV) and thicker Lens Thickness (LT), when compared to eyes in the cataract control group. Furthermore, PACD eyes in the zonular instability group had steeper front R, front Rs and Front Rf, flatter back Rf, thicker lens anterior part thickness, higher lens anterior-to-posterior part thickness ratios, shallower ACD, and greater LV, when compared to PACD eyes with zonular stability. The logistic regression analysis, which was adjusted for age and gender, revealed that zonular instability was positively correlated with anterior part thickness, lens anterior-to-posterior part thickness ratio, and LV, but was negatively correlated with lens anterior radius and ACD. CONCLUSION: Steeper anterior curvature, increased lens anterior part thickness, higher anterior-to-posterior part thickness ratio, shallower ACD, and greater LV are the anatomic features of PACD eyes associated with zonular instability.

Exploring Community Perceptions of COVID-19 and Vaccine Hesitancy in Selected Cities of Ethiopia: A Qualitative Study.

Even though the COVID-19 vaccine has been available and free of charge to the targeted population in Ethiopia, the vaccination rate was lower than needed to achieve herd immunity at community level. This study aimed to explore community perceptions of COVID-19 and vaccine hesitancy in selected cities of Ethiopia involving 70 in-depth interviews and 28 focused group discussions. The audio-taped data were transcribed verbatim, translated into English, and analyzed using a qualitative content analysis approach using the ATLAS.ti software version 8. The findings revealed that COVID-19 was perceived as evil and caused fear and frustration upon its emergence. The community initially used traditional remedies for its prevention but later transitioned to employing non-pharmaceutical interventions. The primary reasons for vaccine hesitancy were misinformation and misconceptions, such as connecting the vaccine with the mark of the beast, a lack of trust due to the multiple vaccine types, a shorter production timeline resulting in distrust of its effectiveness, and a fear of pain and side effects. Based on our findings, we recommend monitoring the use of social media and countering misinformation with the correct information and continuous public health campaigns. Further studies should be conducted to assess the types and magnitude of impacts from the myths and misconceptions on vaccination uptake.

Assessment of drug-susceptible and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) in the Central Region of Somalia: A 3-year retrospective study.

BACKGROUND: Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) remains a public health emergency and a threat globally. Although increasing MDR-TB cases have been recently reported in Somalia, limited information is known. This study aims to determine the prevalence of drug-susceptible and MDR-TB in suspected patients referred to the TB Department in Mudug Hospital, Galkayo, Somalia, and identify potential factors associated with MDR-TB. METHODS: A 3-year hospital laboratory-based retrospective study was conducted by manually reviewing laboratory records of Mycobacterium tuberculosis specimens and GeneXpert MTB/RIF results from January 2019 to December 2021 at the reference mycobacteria laboratory department in Mudug Hospital. RESULTS: A total of 714 positive GeneXpert-MTB results were identified: 619 (86.7%) were drug susceptible (no Rifampin resistance [RR] detected) and 95 (13.3%) with RR detected or defined as MDR-TB. Most of the MDR-TB patients were males (71.6%, 68/95) and between the ages of 15 to 24 (31.6%, 30/95). Most isolates were collected in 2021 (43.2%, 41/95). Multivariate analyses show no significant difference between patients having MDR-TB and/or drug-susceptible TB for all variables. CONCLUSION: This study showed an alarming frequency of MDR-TB cases among M. tuberculosis-positive patients at a regional TB reference laboratory in central Somalia.

Characteristics of and Deaths among 333 Persons with Tuberculosis and COVID-19 in Cross-Sectional Sample from 25 Jurisdictions, United States.

Little is known about co-occurring tuberculosis (TB) and COVID-19 in low TB incidence settings. We obtained a cross-section of 333 persons in the United States co-diagnosed with TB and COVID-19 within 180 days and compared them to 4,433 persons with TB only in 2020 and 18,898 persons with TB during 2017‒2019. Across both comparison groups, a higher proportion of persons with TB-COVID-19 were Hispanic, were long-term care facility residents, and had diabetes. When adjusted for age, underlying conditions, and TB severity, COVID-19 co-infection was not statistically associated with death compared with TB infection only in 2020 (adjusted prevalence ratio 1.0 [95% CI 0.8‒1.4]). Among TB-COVID-19 patients, death was associated with a shorter interval between TB and COVID-19 diagnoses, older age, and being immunocompromised (non-HIV). TB-COVID-19 deaths in the United States appear to be concentrated in subgroups sharing characteristics known to increase risk for death from either disease alone.

Molecular epidemiology and transmission dynamics of multi-drug resistant tuberculosis strains using whole genome sequencing in the Amhara region, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Drug resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis prevention and care is a major challenge in Ethiopia. The World health organization has designated Ethiopia as one of the 30 high burden multi-drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) countries. There is limited information regarding genetic diversity and transmission dynamics of MDR-TB in Ethiopia. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the molecular epidemiology and transmission dynamics of MDR-TB strains using whole genome sequence (WGS) in the Amhara region. METHODS: Forty-five MDR-TB clinical isolates from Amhara region were collected between 2016 and 2018, and characterized using WGS and 24-loci Mycobacterium Interspersed Repetitive Units Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (MIRU-VNTR) typing. Clusters were defined based on the maximum distance of 12 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) or alleles as the upper threshold of genomic relatedness. Five or less SNPs or alleles distance or identical 24-loci VNTR typing is denoted as surrogate marker for recent transmission. RESULTS: Forty-one of the 45 isolates were analyzed by WGS and 44% (18/41) of the isolates were distributed into 4 clusters. Of the 41 MDR-TB isolates, 58.5% were classified as lineage 4, 36.5% lineage 3 and 5% lineage 1. Overall, TUR genotype (54%) was the predominant in MDR-TB strains. 41% (17/41) of the isolates were clustered into four WGS groups and the remaining isolates were unique strains. The predominant cluster (Cluster 1) was composed of nine isolates belonging to lineage 4 and of these, four isolates were in the recent transmission links. CONCLUSIONS: Majority of MDR-TB strain cluster and predominance of TUR lineage in the Amhara region give rise to concerns for possible ongoing transmission. Efforts to strengthen TB laboratory to advance diagnosis, intensified active case finding, and expanded contact tracing activities are needed in order to improve rapid diagnosis and initiate early treatment. This would lead to the interruption of the transmission chain and stop the spread of MDR-TB in the Amhara region.

Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence Gene Profile of Clinical Staphylococcus aureus: A Multi-Center Study from Ethiopia.

Background: Staphylococcus aureus causes a wide range of infections from mild skin and soft tissue to severe life-threatening bacteremia. The pathogenicity of S. aureus infections is related to various bacterial surface components and extracellular proteins such as toxic-shock syndrome (TSS) toxin and Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL). In this study we determine the antimicrobial resistance of isolated strains and their virulence genes in Ethiopia. Methods: A total of 190 archived S. aureus isolates from four Ethiopia Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Surveillance sites were analyzed. The identification of S. aureus was done by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF Biotyper) and antimicrobial susceptibility test (AST) was done using VITEK® 2. Multiplex PCR was used to detect mecA, mecC, pvl and spa genes and super-antigens (sea, seb, sec, seh and sej staphylococcal enterotoxins). Results: A total of 172 isolates were confirmed as S. aureus, 9 (5.23%) were methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and 163 (94.76%) were methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA). AST showed that 152 (88.4%) isolates were resistant to penicillin; 90 (52.32%) resistant to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole; and 45 (26.16%) resistant to tetracycline. A total of 66 (38.37%) isolates harbored at least one staphylococcal enterotoxin gene and 31 (46.96%) isolates had more than one. The most frequent enterotoxin gene encountered was seb 28 (16.28%). The TSST-1 gene was detected in 23 (13.37%). Presence of staphylococcal enterotoxin gene showed significant association with antibiotic resistance to cefoxitin, benzylpenicillin, oxacillin, erythromycin, clindamycin, tetracycline and SXT. The pvl gene was detected in 102 (59.3%) of isolates. Isolates from patients below 15 years of age showed significantly high numbers of pvl gene (P = 0.02). Presence of sej (P = 0.011) and TSST-1 (P <0.001) genes were associated with the presence of pvl gene. Conclusion: In this study, isolates were highly resistant to oral antibiotics and the pvl, seb, sea and TSST-1 genes were prevalent.

Clonal diversity of Staphylococcus aureus isolates in clinical specimens from selected health facilities in Ethiopia.

Staphylococcus aureus is among the top three causative agents of nosocomial infection in Ethiopia. The majority of studies in Ethiopia have focused on the epidemiology of S. aureus in hospital settings, with limited molecular genotyping results. Molecular characterization of S. aureus is essential for identification of strains, and contributes to the control and prevention of S. aureus infection. The aim of the current study was to determine the molecular epidemiology of methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) isolates recovered from clinical specimens in Ethiopia. A total of 161 MSSA and 9 MRSA isolates were characterized using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and staphylococcal protein A (spa) typing. Based on the PFGE analysis, MSSA isolates were grouped into eight pulso-types groups (from A to I), while MRSA isolates clustered into three (A, B and C) pulso-types with more than 80% similarity. The spa typing analysis showed diversity of S. aureus with 56 distinct spa types. Spa type t355 was most prevalent (56/170, 32.9%), while eleven new spa types were detected including t20038, t20039, and t20042. The identified spa types were clustered into 15 spa-clonal complexes (spa-CCs) using BURP analysis; novel/unknown spa types were further subjected to MLST analysis. The majority of isolates belonged to spa-CC 152 (62/170, 36.4%), followed by spa-CC 121 (19/170, 11.2%), and spa-CC 005 (18 /170, 10.6%). Of the nine MRSA isolates, 2 (22.2%) were spa-CC 239 with staphylococcal cassette chromosome (SCC)mec III. These findings highlight the diversity of S. aureus strains in Ethiopia, as well as the presence of potentially epidemic strains circulating in the country necessitating further characterization of S. aureus for antimicrobial resistance detection and infection prevention purposes.

Association Between Vancomycin AUC and Clinical Failure in Patients with Streptococcal Bacteremia.

Background: Monitoring of vancomycin using the area under the curve (AUC) to minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ratio is now preferred for serious methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. Vancomycin AUC/MIC monitoring is being investigated but is not yet well elucidated with other bacterial pathogens. Methods: A retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted assessing patients with streptococcal bacteremia treated with vancomycin definitive therapy. AUC was calculated using a Bayesian approach, and classification and regression tree analysis was used to identify a vancomycin AUC threshold predictive of clinical failure. Results: Eleven patients had a vancomycin AUC < 329 of which 8 (73%) experienced clinical failure, while 35 patients had a vancomycin AUC ≥ 329 of which 12 (34%) experienced clinical failure (P = .04). Hospital length of stay was longer in the AUC ≥ 329 group (15 vs 8 days, P = .05), whereas time to bacteremia clearance (29 [22-45] vs 25 [20-29] hours, P = .15) and toxicity incidence (13% vs 4%, P = 1) were similar between groups. Conclusions: This study identified a VAN AUC threshold of <329 to be predictive of clinical failure in patients with streptococcal bacteremia which should be interpreted as hypothesis-generating. Studies evaluating VAN AUC-based monitoring for streptococcal bloodstream infections along with other infection types are needed before implementation into clinical practice can be recommended.

Screening for Latent Tuberculosis Infection in Adults: Updated Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force.

Importance: Latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) can progress to active tuberculosis disease, causing morbidity and mortality. Objective: To review the evidence on benefits and harms of screening for and treatment of LTBI in adults to inform the US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF). Data Sources: PubMed/MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, and trial registries through December 3, 2021; references; experts; literature surveillance through January 20, 2023. Study Selection: English-language studies of LTBI screening, LTBI treatment, or accuracy of the tuberculin skin test (TST) or interferon-gamma release assays (IGRAs). Studies of LTBI screening and treatment for public health surveillance or disease management were excluded. Data Extraction and Synthesis: Dual review of abstracts, full-text articles, and study quality; qualitative synthesis of findings; meta-analyses conducted when a sufficient number of similar studies were available. Main Outcomes and Measures: Screening test accuracy; development of active tuberculosis disease, transmission, quality of life, mortality, and harms. Results: A total of 113 publications were included (112 studies; N = 69 009). No studies directly evaluated the benefits and harms of screening. Pooled estimates for sensitivity of the TST were 0.80 (95% CI, 0.74-0.87) at the 5-mm induration threshold, 0.81 (95% CI, 0.76-0.87) at the 10-mm threshold, and 0.60 (95% CI, 0.46-0.74) at the 15-mm threshold. Pooled estimates for sensitivity of IGRA tests ranged from 0.81 (95% CI, 0.79-0.84) to 0.90 (95% CI, 0.87-0.92). Pooled estimates for specificity of screening tests ranged from 0.95 to 0.99. For treatment of LTBI, a large (n = 27 830), good-quality randomized clinical trial found a relative risk (RR) for progression to active tuberculosis at 5 years of 0.35 (95% CI, 0.24-0.52) for 24 weeks of isoniazid compared with placebo (number needed to treat, 112) and an increase in hepatotoxicity (RR, 4.59 [95% CI, 2.03-10.39]; number needed to harm, 279). A previously published meta-analysis reported that multiple regimens were efficacious compared with placebo or no treatment. Meta-analysis found greater risk for hepatotoxicity with isoniazid than with rifampin (pooled RR, 4.22 [95% CI, 2.21-8.06]; n = 7339). Conclusions and Relevance: No studies directly evaluated the benefits and harms of screening for LTBI compared with no screening. TST and IGRAs were moderately sensitive and highly specific. Treatment of LTBI with recommended regimens reduced the risk of progression to active tuberculosis. Isoniazid was associated with higher rates of hepatotoxicity than placebo or rifampin.

Epidemiology and prevention of hospital-acquired carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales infection in hospitalized patients, Northeast Ethiopia.

Objective: Carbapenemase-producing carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CP-CRE) are usually healthcare associated. The aim of this study was to investigate the epidemiology of hospital-acquired CRE and multi-drug-resistant infections, and identify associated risk factors in hospitalized patients in Northeast Ethiopia. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted in patients admitted with sepsis between January and June 2021. Demographic and clinical data were collected using questionnaires. In total, 384 samples were collected and cultured based on source of infection. Bacterial species identification was performed using biochemical tests, and drug susceptibility testing was done using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. The modified carbapenem inactivation method was employed for carbapenemase detection. Data were analysed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. Results: The overall rate of CP-CRE infection was 14.6%. Bloodstream infections and urinary tract infections were the predominant hospital-acquired infections (HAIs). The majority of CP-CRE were Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae, and accounted for 4.9%. Chronic underlying disease (adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 7.9, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.9-31.5), number of beds per room (AOR: 11, 95% CI: 1.7-75) and eating raw vegetables (AOR: 11, 95% CI: 3.4-40) were significantly associated with hospital-acquired CRE infection. Conclusions: The rate of CP-CRE infection found in this study is concerning. There is a need for further evaluation of risk factors and measures to decrease HAI. Hand hygiene, increased laboratory capacity, improved infection prevention measures, and antimicrobial stewardship programmes are needed in healthcare settings to halt the transmission of CP-CRE.

Infrequent intrahousehold transmission of Clostridioides difficile between pet owners and their pets.

Companion animals have been shown to carry Clostridioides difficile strains that are similar or identical to strains found in people, and a small number of studies have shown that pets carry genetically identical C. difficile isolates as their owners, suggesting inter-species transmission. However, the directionality of transmission is ultimately unknown, and the frequency with which animals acquire C. difficile following their owners' infection is unclear. The goal of this study was to assess how often pets belonging to people with C. difficile infection carry genetically related C. difficile isolates. We enrolled pet owners from two medical institutions (University of Pennsylvania Health System (UPHS) and The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center (OSUWMC)) who had diarrhoea with or without positive C. difficile assays and tested their faeces and their pets' faeces for C. difficile using both anaerobic culture and PCR assays. When microorganisms were obtained from both the owner and pet and had the same toxin profile or ribotype, isolates underwent genomic sequencing. Faecal samples were obtained from a total of 59 humans, 72 dogs and 9 cats, representing 47 complete households (i.e. where a sample was available from the owner and at least one pet). Of these, C. difficile was detected in 30 humans, 10 dogs and 0 cats. There were only two households where C. difficile was detected in both the owner and pet. In one of these households, the C. difficile isolates were of different toxin profiles/ribotypes (A+/B+ / RT 499 from the owner, A-/B- / RT PR22386 from the dog). In the other household, the isolates were genetically identical (one SNP difference). Interestingly, the dog from this household had recently received a course of antibiotics (cefpodoxime and metronidazole). Our findings suggest that inter-species transmission of C. difficile occurs infrequently in households with human C. difficile infections.

System and facility readiness assessment for conducting active surveillance of adverse events following immunization in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: To help distinguish vaccine-related adverse events following immunization (AEFI) from coincidental occurrences, active vaccine pharmacovigilance (VP) prospective surveillance programs are needed. From February to May 2021, we assessed the system and facility readiness for implementing active AEFI VP surveillance in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. METHODS: Selected hospitals were assessed using a readiness assessment tool with scoring measures. The site assessment was conducted via in-person interviews within the specific departments in each hospital. We evaluated the system readiness with a desk review of AEFI guidelines, Expanded Program for Immunization Guidelines and Ethiopian Food and Drug Administration and Ethiopian Public Health Institute websites. RESULTS: Of the hospitals in Addis Ababa, 23.1% met the criteria for our site assessment. During the system readiness assessment, we found that essential components were in place. However, rules, regulations and proclamations pertaining to AEFI surveillance were absent. Based on the tool, the three hospitals (A, B and C) scored 60.6% (94/155), 48.3% (75/155) and 40% (62/155), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Only one of three hospitals assessed in our evaluation scored >50% for readiness to implement active AEFI surveillance. We also identified the following areas for improvement to ensure successful implementation: training, making guidelines and reporting forms available and ensuring a system that accommodates paper-based and electronic-based recording systems.

Rapid virtual training and field deployment for COVID-19 surveillance officers: experiences from Ethiopia.

Rapid scale-up of surveillance activities is the key to successful coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic prevention and mitigation. Ethiopia did not have a sufficient number of active surveillance officers for the public health COVID-19 response. Training of surveillance officers was needed urgently to fill the gap in the workforce needed. Subject-matter experts from the United States and Ethiopia developed applicable training modules including background on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), contact investigation, and communications. The training modules were delivered live in real-time via web-based virtual presentation. Seventy-seven health surveillance officers were hired, trained, and deployed in two weeks to assist with surveillance activities in Ethiopia. Electronic capacity building is needed in order to improve Web-based training in resource-limited settings where internet access is limited or unreliable. Web-based synchronously delivered course was an effective platform for COVID-19 surveillance training. However, strengthening public and private information technology capacity, literacy, and internet availability will improve Web-based education platforms in resource-limited countries.

Characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Patients in Busia County Referral Hospital, Kenya.

Staphylococcus aureus is an important pathogen associated with hospital, community, and livestock-acquired infections, with the ability to develop resistance to antibiotics. Nasal carriage by hospital inpatients is a risk for opportunistic infections. Antibiotic susceptibility patterns, virulence genes and genetic population structure of S. aureus nasal isolates, from inpatients at Busia County Referral Hospital (BCRH) were analyzed. A total of 263 inpatients were randomly sampled, from May to July 2015. The majority of inpatients (85.9%) were treated empirically with antimicrobials, including ceftriaxone (65.8%) and metronidazole (49.8%). Thirty S. aureus isolates were cultured from 29 inpatients with a prevalence of 11% (10.3% methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA), 0.8% methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA)). Phenotypic and genotypic resistance was highest to penicillin-G (96.8%), trimethoprim (73.3%), and tetracycline (13.3%) with 20% of isolates classified as multidrug resistant. Virulence genes, Panton-Valentine leukocidin (pvl), toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 (tsst-1), and sasX gene were detected in 16.7%, 23.3% and 3.3% of isolates. Phylogenetic analysis showed 4 predominant clonal complexes CC152, CC8, CC80, and CC508. This study has identified that inpatients of BCRH were carriers of S. aureus harbouring virulence genes and resistance to a range of antibiotics. This may indicate a public health risk to other patients and the community.

Multi-Drug Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Carriage in Abattoir Workers in Busia, Kenya.

Abattoir workers have been identified as high-risk for livestock-associated Staphylococcus aureus carriage. This study investigated S. aureus carriage in abattoir workers in Western Kenya. Nasal swabs were collected once from participants between February-November 2012. S. aureus was isolated using bacterial culture and antibiotic susceptibility testing performed using the VITEK 2 instrument and disc diffusion methods. Isolates underwent whole genome sequencing and Multi Locus Sequence Types were derived from these data. S. aureus (n = 126) was isolated from 118/737 (16.0%) participants. Carriage was higher in HIV-positive (24/89, 27.0%) than HIV−negative participants (94/648, 14.5%; p = 0.003). There were 23 sequence types (STs) identified, and half of the isolates were ST152 (34.1%) or ST8 (15.1%). Many isolates carried the Panton-Valentine leucocidin toxin gene (42.9%). Only three isolates were methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA) (3/126, 2.4%) and the prevalence of MRSA carriage was 0.4% (3/737). All MRSA were ST88. Isolates from HIV-positive participants (37.0%) were more frequently resistant to sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim compared to isolates from HIV-negative participants (6.1%; p < 0.001). Similarly, trimethoprim resistance genes were more frequently detected in isolates from HIV-positive (81.5%) compared to HIV-negative participants (60.6%; p = 0.044). S. aureus in abattoir workers were representative of major sequence types in Africa, with a high proportion being toxigenic isolates. HIV-positive individuals were more frequently colonized by antimicrobial resistant S. aureus which may be explained by prophylactic antimicrobial use.