Gender Equity Perceptions Among Social and Administrative Sciences Pharmacy Faculty: An AACP-APhA Task Force Report.

OBJECTIVE: The American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy's Social and Administrative Sciences Section and the American Pharmacists Association-Academy of Pharmaceutical Research and Science's Economic, Social and Administrative Sciences Section formed a Gender Equity Task Force to determine if there is evidence to suggest that there is gender disparity in pay; responsibilities; treatment by peers/colleagues, students, and administration; leadership opportunities; and rank, tenure status, and career advancement for Section members; and to develop recommendations to address existing disparities. METHODS: A Qualtrics survey was emailed in December 2020 to all American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy's Social and Administrative Sciences and American Pharmacists Association-Academy of Pharmaceutical Research and Science's Economic, Social and Administrative Sciences Section members. The questionnaire included items regarding favorability toward men or women in various academic domains (research, teaching, service, recruitment, mentoring, and advancement). Participants were asked if they had experienced gender inequity, and if so, at what type of institution and academic rank. The χ2 tests of independence and post hoc comparisons were used to assess item responses according to gender. RESULTS: Of the respondents, 72% indicated that they had experienced gender inequity. Women and persons of color were more likely to do so. Women commonly reported that men received more favorable treatment in nearly all academic domains, whereas men reported that women and men were treated equally. CONCLUSION: Pharmacy faculty specializing in social and administrative sciences reported experiences of gender inequity and perceptions of gender inequity. Perception gaps existed between male and female faculty in numerous academic domains. Colleges and schools of pharmacy should increase awareness of, and strive to self-assess, gender inequity in their institutions.

Stakeholder views on requiring diagnosis or clinical indication on e-prescriptions.

BACKGROUND: Medication safety organizations have been recommending the inclusion of diagnosis or clinical indication on prescription orders for decades. However, this information is typically not provided by prescribers and shared with pharmacists, despite the availability of data fields in the most commonly used standard for electronic prescriptions. OBJECTIVE: To elucidate the views of selected industry stakeholders relative to perceived barriers to including diagnosis or indication on all electronic prescriptions. METHODS: Semistructured concept elicitation interviews identified key issues. Survey items were refined iteratively by the research team. The final instrument consisted of 34 questions intended to elicit the importance and relative priority of perceived barriers and potential solutions. A link to the Internet survey was emailed to members of the National Council for Prescription Drug Programs in February 2023, with biweekly follow-up reminders. RESULTS: A total of 139 surveys were analyzed for a response rate of 9.6%. On the importance of resolving issues related to the inclusion of diagnosis or indication on e-prescriptions, a majority of respondents indicated "extremely important" or "very important" for all items except one. On level of agreement with statements about how to implement such a requirement, a majority indicated "strongly agree" or "agree" for 10 of 17 items. CONCLUSIONS: Although clearly exploratory, the results of our survey suggest industry stakeholder agreement that uniform inclusion of diagnosis or clinical indication on all e-prescriptions would improve patient safety and health outcomes. A number of important questions and potential barriers must be resolved for implementation to be successful.

A checklist for a consistent, comprehensive medication review.

INTRODUCTION: Medicare Advantage Part D plans and stand-alone Part D prescription drug plans are required by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services to have qualified providers, including pharmacists, and offer annual comprehensive medication reviews (CMRs) for eligible Medicare beneficiaries. Although guidance on the components of a CMR is available, providers have flexibility in how to deliver the CMR to patients and which content to cover. With the variety of patient needs, CMR content is not always consistently delivered in practice. Our research group performed an extensive evaluation to create and test an ideal CMR content coverage checklist for CMR provision. CMR CONTENT CHECKLIST: The CMR Content Checklist can be used for quality improvement purposes to evaluate the comprehensiveness of pharmacist services-to assess either within pharmacist variation across patients or within organization variations between pharmacists or sites. INCORPORATING THE CMR CONTENT CHECKLIST INTO PRACTICE: Testing in a real-world setting demonstrated where gaps in service coverage existed. The CMR Content Checklist could be used as the first step for quality improvement given that it provides details on the key aspects of the service that can inform quality measure development.

It is time for a new comprehensive medication review quality measure.

Medication therapy management (MTM) services include comprehensive medication reviews (CMRs), which have been completed with millions of patients since their inception in the United States. The current MTM quality measure focuses on whether CMRs were completed (ie, the CMR completion rate). However, this process measure does not assess quality of care, or patient-reported or other outcomes of CMRs, and, therefore, does not reward MTM providers for improving health outcomes. In this viewpoint article, we present 3 reasons that shape our argument for new MTM quality measures and offer recommendations on next steps to achieve this. DISCLOSURES: Dr Vaffis is an employee of Clinical Outcomes Solutions and discloses this was work was completed previously during her employment at the University of Arizona. Dr Dhatt is an employee of Janssen and discloses this was work was completed previously during her employment at the University of Arizona. Dr Anderson is an employee of The Freedom Fund and discloses this was work was completed previously during her employment at the University of Arizona. Dr Black is an employee of Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., a subsidiary of Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, NJ, USA. Dr Campbell received funding from Pharmacy Quality Alliance, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., a subsidiary of Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, NJ, USA, and SinfoniaRx and discloses this work was completed previously during his employment at the University of Arizona. Dr Kolobova is an employee of Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., a subsidiary of Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, NJ, USA. Dr Hines is an employee of Pharmacy Quality Alliance. Dr Castora-Binkley is an employee of Pharmacy Quality Alliance. Dr Nelson is an employee of Pharmacy Quality Alliance. Dr Axon received funding from Pharmacy Quality Alliance, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., a subsidiary of Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, NJ, USA, and SinfoniaRx. Dr Warholak received funding from Pharmacy Quality Alliance, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., a subsidiary of Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, NJ, USA, and SinfoniaRx and discloses this was work was completed previously during her employment at the University of Arizona.

Improving a Leadership Scale: Applying Rasch Analysis to Student Pharmacists' Attitudes and Beliefs About Leadership.

OBJECTIVE: Leadership development is necessary for student pharmacists to become pharmacist leaders, but no readily usable standard measurement of student attitudes toward and beliefs about leadership exists. To assess the reliability and validity evidence for using the Leadership Attitudes and Beliefs Scale (LABS-III), originally developed and validated in Malaysia, for use with student pharmacists in the United States. METHODS: The 2-unit leadership course was piloted among second- and third-year students in a public college of pharmacy with a 4-year doctor of pharmacy curriculum. The participating students completed the LABS-III during the first and last classes as part of a quality improvement measure for course enhancement. Rasch analysis was then used to assess the reliability and validity evidence for the LABS-III. RESULTS: A total of 24 students participated in the pilot course. The pre and postcourse surveys had 100% and 92% response rates, respectively. After Rasch analysis model fit was achieved, the item separation for the 14 nonextreme items was 2.19 with an item reliability of 0.83. The person separation index was 2.16 with a person reliability of 0.82. CONCLUSION: The Rasch analysis revealed that the number of LABS-III items should be decreased and that the 3-point response scale should be used to improve functionality and use in classroom settings for PharmD students in the United States. Further research is needed to augment the reliability and validity evidence of the modified instrument for use at other United States colleges of pharmacy.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of nivolumab-chemotherapy as first-line therapy for locally advanced/metastatic gastric cancer: a United States payer perspective.

OBJECTIVES: Nivolumab, an immune checkpoint inhibitor, was approved by the United States (US) Food and Drug administration as a first-line systemic therapy for locally advanced/metastatic gastric cancer patients. The current study aimed to investigate the cost-effectiveness of nivolumab-chemotherapy combination versus chemotherapy alone as a first-line therapy from a US payer perspective. METHODS: An economic evaluation was conducted using a partitioned survival model in Microsoft Excel® using data from the CheckMate 649 trial. Three discrete mutually exclusive health states (progression-free, post-progression, and death) were included in the model. The health state occupancy was calculated using the overall survival and progression-free survival curves derived from the CheckMate 649 trial. Cost, resource use, and health utility estimates were estimated from a US payer perspective. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses assessed the uncertainty of the model parameters. RESULTS: Nivolumab-chemotherapy provided additional 0.25 life years compared to chemotherapy alone and the quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) were 0.701 and 0.561, respectively, producing a gain of 0.140 QALYs and an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $574,072/QALY. CONCLUSION: From the US payer perspective, at a willingness to pay threshold of $US150,000/QALY, nivolumab-chemotherapy was not found to be cost-effective as a first-line therapy for locally advanced/metastatic gastric cancer.

Features of Cancer mHealth Apps and Evidence for Patient Preferences: Scoping Literature Review.

BACKGROUND: Cancer is increasingly being treated as a chronic disease rather than an acute one-time illness. Additionally, oral anticancer therapies, as opposed to intravenous chemotherapy, are now available for an increasing number of cancer indications. Mobile health (mHealth) apps for use on mobile devices (eg, smartphones or tablets) are designed to help patients with medication adherence, symptom tracking, and disease management. Several previous literature reviews have been conducted regarding mHealth apps for cancer. However, these studies did not address patient preferences for the features of cancer mHealth apps. OBJECTIVE: The primary aim was to review the scientific literature that describes the features and functions of mHealth apps designed for cancer self-management. METHODS: As the purpose of this review was to explore the depth and breadth of research on mHealth app features for cancer self-management, a scoping review methodology was adopted. Four databases were used for this review: PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, and PsycINFO. Citation and reference searches were conducted for manuscripts meeting the inclusion criteria. A gray literature search was also conducted. Data extracted from manuscripts included author, title, publication date, study type, sampling type, cancer type, treatment, age of participants, features, availability (free or subscription), design input, and patient preferences. Finally, the features listed for each app were compared, highlighting similarities across platforms as well as features unique to each app. RESULTS: After the removal of duplicates, 522 manuscripts remained for the title and abstract review, with 51 undergoing full-text review. A total of 7 manuscripts (referred to as studies hereafter) were included in the final scoping review. App features described in each study varied from 2 to 11, with a median of 4 features per app. The most reported feature was a symptom or side effect tracker, which was reported in 6 studies. Two apps specified the inclusion of patients and health care providers during the design, while 1 app noted that IT and communications experts provided design input. The utility of the apps for end users was measured in several ways, including acceptability (measuring the end users' experience), usability (assessing the functionality and performance by observing real users completing tasks), or qualitative data (reports from end users collected from interviews or focus groups). CONCLUSIONS: This review explored the literature on cancer mHealth apps. Popular features within these mHealth apps include symptom trackers, cancer education, and medication trackers. However, these apps and features are often developed with little input from patients. Additionally, there is little information regarding patient preferences for the features of existing apps. While the number of cancer-related apps available for download continues to increase, further exploration of patient preferences for app features could result in apps that better meet patient disease self-management needs.

Cultivating COVID-19 Vaccine Confidence in Pharmacy Professionals.

Pharmacists promote vaccinations and challenge misconceptions about vaccine hesitancy, yet pharmacists' knowledge of vaccine confidence has not been assessed. The objective of this study was to compare pharmacists' knowledge of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine confidence before and after a live continuing education (CE) session. This pretest-posttest study evaluated the differences before and after a live CE session on COVID-19 vaccine confidence provided to pharmacists at a nationwide health technology company. Participants' total pretest and posttest scores were compared using paired t-tests, while pretest and posttest scores for each item were compared using chi-squared tests. A Bonferroni correction was applied, resulting in an alpha level of 0.005. A total of 279 pharmacists participated in this study. After the CE session, mean knowledge scores increased (5.2 ± 1.5 to 7.4 ± 1.35, p < 0.0001). After the CE session, there was no significant increase in pharmacists' knowledge about the approach that is not recommended when discussing vaccination beliefs with a patient (71.3% to 77.4%, p = 0.099), determinants of vaccine uptake (83.9% to 87.8%, p = 0.182), and social determinants of health that can influence vaccination rates (93.6% to 96.4%, p = 0.121). There was a significant change in pre- and posttest knowledge for the remaining seven items.

Qualitative analysis of telephonic comprehensive medication review content and delivery.

BACKGROUND: Comprehensive medication reviews (CMRs) are offered to eligible Medicare beneficiaries to improve patient medication knowledge, identify, and address medication concerns, and empower medication self-management. However, the specific content of real-world CMRs is unclear. OBJECTIVE: To qualitatively assess CMR content and delivery among telephonic CMR providers. METHODS: This qualitative thematic analysis used transcriptions of audio-recorded patient interactions during CMRs from 3 telephonic medication therapy management provider organizations. Data were qualitatively analyzed using the inductive saturation model to code emergent themes by independent reviewers who met to agree themes through consensus. Intercoder reliability was calculated using Krippendorf alpha. RESULTS: Overall, 32 CMR transcripts from 3 organizations were analyzed in 13 rounds of coding. Intercoder reliability was >95%. A total of 21 themes were identified across 4 stages: call opening (4 themes), medication reconciliation (5 themes), clinical assessments and guidance (8 themes), and call closing (4 themes). The call opening stage included: service explanation; insurance coverage/cost; identity/privacy/recording; and patient's medication management. Medication reconciliation included: drug name, dose, frequency, and indication; medication deletion and addition; over-the-counter and vaccination assessment; drug efficacy assessment; and prescribing provider assessment. Clinical assessments and guidance included 4 core clinical assessments: allergy assessment; drug therapy problem assessment; drug-related adverse events; and medication modification; and 4 additional assessments: clinical/therapeutic guidance; cost savings guidance; diet/exercise/lifestyle guidance; and optional clinical and behavioral assessments. Call closing included: documentation; primary care provider confirmation; patient satisfaction; and call transfer. There were variations among organizations in the depth that CMR components were covered. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest provider organizations are including components that meet Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services goals for CMRs. Yet, variations among organizations indicate a need for standardization and patient-centered measures to ensure appropriate CMR components are covered, while maintaining flexibility for pharmacists to provide patient-oriented CMRs that meet patients' clinical needs.

Seeking Gender Equity in Pharmacy Academia.

Gender inequity is a critical diversity, equity, and inclusion issue that has continued to lead to workplace disparities. While gender-based differences in pay are well documented, there are multiple other facets of academic worklife (eg, teaching, research, service, resources, etc) wherein gender inequities exist but have never been systematically identified or reported. The COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated these inequities. One reason for continued existence of gender disparities in the workplace is lack of focused attention and emphasis on this issue. A recently formed Gender Equity Task Force has taken the first steps to systematically explore gender inequity in all areas of academic pharmacy worklife. The purpose of this Commentary is to highlight the scope of the problem of gender inequity in pharmacy academia and offer solutions that the Academy can implement to mitigate the impact of gender inequity in the future.

Identifying Student Research Project Impact Using the Buxton and Hanney Payback Framework.

Objectives. To determine whether evidence of the impact of student quality improvement projects and research projects on practice sites and the community can be identified using the Buxton and Hanney Payback Framework (BHPF).Methods. The BHPF was used to identify the broader impact of quality improvement projects and research projects conducted by the Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) class of 2020. The BHPF includes five domains of community impact: knowledge production, benefits to health or the health sector, benefits to future research, economic benefits, and policy and product development. Data were collected by having project preceptors complete a questionnaire and by reviewing student project posters. Data were analyzed by calculating frequencies and percentages for each domain.Results. Projects (N=73) were completed by 107 pharmacy students at health-system sites, community sites, academic sites, and other sites, and most often involved clinical care and pharmacy services (49%). Thirty-three preceptors (55%) responded to the questionnaire, and 73 project posters were reviewed. The most frequently identified impact types were knowledge production (n=43 for questionnaire, n=24 for posters) and health/health sector benefits (n=46 for questionnaire, n=8 for posters). Less frequently identified were economic benefits (total n=19), benefits to future research (total n=13), and policy and product development (total n=10).Conclusions. This study provides evidence that the impact of PharmD student quality improvement and research projects on practice sites and communities can be identified using the BHPF framework, and this impact extends beyond the usual academic outcomes of poster presentations and publications to include benefits related to improving quality of services, improving workflow, and providing opportunity for personal development.

Reliability and Validity Evidence for an Academic Gender Equity Questionnaire.

Objective. The majority of practicing pharmacists and student pharmacists are women. However, instruments to assess perceptions of gender equity within pharmacy academia are not available. The objective of this research was to describe the psychometric analysis of a questionnaire developed to assess gender equity by a Gender Equity Task Force and to report reliability and validity evidence.Methods. A questionnaire with 21 items addressing the teaching, research, service, advancement, mentoring, recruitment, and gender of college leaders was created. The survey was distributed via email in December 2020 to all social and administrative science section members of two professional associations. Rasch analysis was performed to evaluate the reliability and validity evidence for the questionnaire.Results. After reverse coding, all items met parameters for unidimensionality necessary for Rasch analysis. Once adjacent categories were merged to create a 3-point scale, the scale and items met parameters for appropriate functionality. Items were ordered hierarchically in order of difficulty. The modified instrument and scale can be treated as interval level data for future use.Conclusion. This analysis provides reliability and validity evidence supporting use of the gender equity questionnaire in the social and administrative academic pharmacy population if recommended edits such as the 3-point scale are used. Future research on gender equity can benefit from use of a psychometrically sound questionnaire for data collection.

Gender inequity: Enough talk, time for action.

While gender inequity has been shown to be an ongoing issue in the pharmacy profession, it has moved to the forefront due to increasing numbers of women in pharmacy. Two national organizations, American Pharmacists Association (APhA) and American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) convened a joint Gender Equity Task Force to examine this matter among social and administrative sciences pharmacy faculty. The Task Force launched a survey and conducted interviews, as well as held several forums to solicit recommendations. This commentary provides recommendations for pharmacy constituents and stakeholders regarding: training and programming, leadership and mentoring, policy, and expansion. The goal is for organizations and leadership to incorporate recommendations with the goal of closing the gap in gender inequity.

Gender equity perceptions among social and administrative science faculty: A qualitative evaluation.

BACKGROUND: Anecdotal evidence suggests that gender inequity persists in academic pharmacy. To date, there are limited published data about the perception of gender inequity in academic pharmacy. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this project was to determine themes associated with gender inequity perceptions in social and administrative science faculty from 2 national pharmacy organizations. METHODS: A gender equity task force comprising 13 members from Social and Administrative Sciences (SAS) sections of the American Pharmacists Association and the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy was formed. The task force designed a semistructured interview guide comprising questions about demographics and core areas where inequities likely exist. When the survey invitation was sent to faculty members of the SAS sections via Qualtrics, faculty indicated whether they were willing to be interviewed. Interviews were conducted by 2 members of the task force via video conferencing application. The interviews were transcribed. Topic coding involving general categorization by theme followed by refinement to delineate subcategories was used. Coding was conducted independently by 3 coders followed by consensus when discrepancies were identified. RESULTS: A total of 21 faculty participated in the interviews. Respondents were primarily female (71%), were white (90%), had Doctor of Philosophy as their terminal degree (71%), and were in nontenure track positions (57%). Most respondents (90%) experienced gender inequity. A total of 52% reported experiencing gender inequity at all ranks from graduate student to full professor. Four major themes were identified: microaggression (57%), workload (86%), respect (76%), and opportunities (38%). Workload, respect, and opportunities included multiple subthemes. CONCLUSION: Faculty respondents perceive gender inequities in multiple areas of their work. Greater inequity perceptions were present in areas of workload and respect. The task force offers multiple recommendations to address these inequities.

Comparison of the properties of the English and Spanish versions of the Patient Satisfaction with Pharmacist Services Questionnaire 2.0.

BACKGROUND: Pharmacists provide direct patient care services such as chronic disease management and medication therapy management services. Patient satisfaction measures are valuable tools to assess outcomes. Therefore, measuring patient satisfaction with pharmacist services, using tools such as the Patient Satisfaction with Pharmacist Services Questionnaire 2.0 (PSPSQ 2.0), is important to ensure service quality. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to evaluate the descriptive properties and reliability of the original English and newly translated Spanish versions of the PSPSQ 2.0 in a larger sample. METHODS: This project evaluated the functioning of the Spanish translation of the PSPSQ 2.0 compared to the English version. Demographic characteristics were analyzed to determine whether the instrument functioned differently for English- and Spanish-speaking groups. Psychometric properties were analyzed. RESULTS: Completed data for both PSPSQ 2.0 versions were available for 337 patients (English, n = 187; Spanish, n = 150) enrolled. In the English data set, no items had a ceiling or a floor effect, while in the Spanish data set, all items had a ceiling effect, but no items had a floor effect. In both the English and Spanish versions, nearly all the items had a strong, positive correlation with one another (greater than 0.30), indicating the measure was unidimensional. The pattern of the estimated loading indicated the items were assigned as expected. The items functioned differently in the English and Spanish instruments, and there was a statistically significant difference in Wald values between the 2 versions (P > 0.05). CONCLUSION: The PSPSQ 2.0 demonstrated reliability for this setting and population. However, regarding demonstration of validity, the response categories in the instrument seem not to capture the views of the Spanish-speaking respondents. Further work may focus on uncovering the preferences for use of Likert scale response categories by Spanish speakers to ensure greater cultural fidelity in the translation.

Evaluating the reliability and validity of a questionnaire used to measure experiences of teamwork among student pharmacists in a quality improvement course.

INTRODUCTION: The psychometric properties of instruments used to capture student pharmacists' perspectives of teamwork have not been well assessed. This study measured the reliability and validity of an instrument designed to assess teamwork experiences among student pharmacists in a quality improvement (QI) class at one United States pharmacy school. METHODS: The psychometric properties of a previously conducted 17-item questionnaire (response options: "strongly agree," "agree," "disagree," or "strongly disagree") about second-year student pharmacists' teamworking experiences were assessed. A Rasch rating scale model was used to construct measures of teamwork experience. Principal component analysis (PCA) assessed unidimensionality. Item- and person-fit statistics were assessed. Construct and content validity and reliability were estimated utilizing student and item separation indices (SI) and reliability coefficients (RC). RESULTS: Sixty student pharmacists were included. PCA conveyed a unidimensional construct. Four items with infit and outfit mean-squared values outside the suggested range were removed. Item responses "disagree" and "strongly disagree" were merged to improve scale functionality. The average person measure was 1.74 ± 2.03 logits. Student and item RC were 0.81 (SI = 2.04) and 0.97 (SI = 2.17), respectively. The easiest item endorsed was team's ability to reach consensus, while the most difficult item was interest to do collaborative work again. Mismatch of student experience and item difficulty level on the continuum scale suggested additional items are needed to match student teamwork experience. CONCLUSION: The instrument demonstrated evidence of reliability and validity to measure student pharmacists' teamwork experience in a QI class, but additional instrument modifications are recommended.

Evaluation of a Pharmacist-Led Telephonic Medication Therapy Management Program in Rural Arizona: Implications for Community Health Practice.

This study evaluated a pharmacist-led telephonic Medication Therapy Management (MTM) program for rural patients in Arizona with poor access to healthcare services. A pharmacist provided telephonic MTM services to eligible adult patients living in rural Arizona communities with a diagnosis of diabetes and/or hypertension. Data were collected and summarized descriptively for demographic and health conditions, clinical values, and medication-related problems (MRPs) at the initial consultation, and follow-up data collected at 1 and 3 months. A total of 33 patients had baseline and one-month follow-up data, while 15 patients also had three-month follow-up data. At the initial consultation, the following MRPs were identified: medication adherence issues, dose-related concerns, adverse drug events (ADE), high-risk medications, and therapeutic duplications. Recommendations were made for patients to have the influenza, herpes zoster, and pneumonia vaccines; and to initiate a statin, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor, angiotensin receptor blocker, beta-blocker, and/or rescue inhaler. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that while pharmacists can identify and make clinical recommendations to patients, the value of these interventions is not fully realized due to recommendations not being implemented and difficulties with patient follow-up, which may have been due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Additional efforts to address these shortcomings are therefore required.

Improving and validating a rating scale to assess student pharmacists' perception of professional identity.

BACKGROUND: There are limited data on the psychometric properties of instruments evaluating professional identity (PI) among student pharmacists. OBJECTIVES: This study analyzed the psychometric properties of an instrument to assess student pharmacists' perception of their PI. METHODS: Data from a cross-sectional survey were used to establish validity and reliability evidence of student pharmacists' perception of PI using Rasch analysis. Linear regression was conducted to evaluate the association of students' characteristics with their perceived PI. Analyses were conducted in WINSTEPS (SWREG, Minnetonka, MN) and SAS (SAS, Cary, NC). RESULTS: The analysis included 118 student pharmacists. Primary analysis suggested inadequate scale functionality; thus, some response categories were merged. With modified item anchors and the removal of the most misfitting item, the data fit the model as measured by student and item infit and outfit mean-squared values. The item-person map showed appropriate distribution of item difficulty, identifying medicine adviser and entrepreneur being the easiest and hardest items to agree with, respectively. Students' abilities initially mismatched with item difficulty and exhibited a ceiling effect, requiring addition of items reflecting students' higher perceptions of PIs. Although students' reliability coefficient (RC) and separation index were 0.98 and 1.73, respectively, RC of the items was 0.94. Students who reported receiving formal PI training were 0.3 times more likely to have high perception of PI than those who did not report training. CONCLUSION: The instrument exhibited fair validity and reliability evidence for assessing the perception of PI among student pharmacists. Additional items to fill identified item gaps are needed to improve the instrument's content validity.

Identifying predictors of opioid use among older United States' adults with pain.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the strongest predictors of opioid use among older United States' (US) adults (≥50 years) with pain. DESIGN: Cross-sectional retrospective database design. SETTING: 2017 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey data. PARTICIPANTS: Civilian, noninstitutionalized sample of US adults aged ≥50 years alive for the calendar year with pain in the past 4 weeks. INTERVENTIONS: Hierarchical logistic regression models assessed significant predictors of opioid use, which included: predisposing, enabling, need, personal health practices, and external environmental factors. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Opioid use status (opioid user vs. nonopioid user). RESULTS: Among 51,372,861 civilian, noninstitutionalized US adults alive aged ≥50 years with pain in 2017, the opioid use prevalence was 27.4 percent (95 percent confidence interval = 25.8-29.0). Predictors of opioid use included: white versus other race (adjusted odds ratio, AOR = 1.430), Hispanic versus non-Hispanic ethnicity (AOR = 0.648), up to high school versus higher than high school education (AOR = 1.259), functional limitation versus no limitation (AOR = 1.580), lit-tle/moderate versus quite a bit/extreme pain (AOR = 0.422), good versus fair/poor perceived mental health status (AOR = 1.429), smokers versus nonsmokers (AOR = 1.523), and residing in the northeast versus west US (AOR = 0.646). CONCLUSIONS: This study of 51 million older US adults with pain indicated that several factors including race, ethnicity, education, functional limitations, pain severity, mental health status, smoking status, and region of the country were pre-dictors of opioid use. Future research is needed in additional clinical populations and to investigate where these findings diverge from previous studies.

Program of All-Inclusive Care for the Elderly (PACE) versus Other Programs: A Scoping Review of Health Outcomes.

The Program of All-Inclusive Care for the Elderly (PACE) provides comprehensive health and social services to community-dwelling older United States (US) adults. However, little is known about how PACE outcomes compare to similar caregiving programs. This scoping review searched nine databases to identify studies that compared economic, clinical, or humanistic outcomes of PACE to other caregiving programs in the US. Two reviewers independently screened and extracted data from relevant articles and resolved discrepancies through consensus. From the 724 articles identified, six studies were included. Example study outcomes included: limitations and needs, survival and mortality, healthcare utilization, and economic outcomes. In conclusion, there are few published comparisons of PACE outcomes versus other caregiving programs for older US adults, and identified studies indicate mixed results. Further studies are needed to compare PACE outcomes to other programs so that policymakers are well informed to manage and optimize health outcomes for the growing US older adult population.