Telomerase inhibition is an effective therapeutic strategy in TERT promoter-mutant glioblastoma models with low tumor volume.

BACKGROUND: Glioblastoma is one of the most lethal forms of cancer, with 5-year survival rates of only 6%. Glioblastoma-targeted therapeutics have been challenging to develop due to significant inter- and intra-tumoral heterogeneity. Telomerase reverse transcriptase gene (TERT) promoter mutations are the most common known clonal oncogenic mutations in glioblastoma. Telomerase is therefore considered to be a promising therapeutic target against this tumor. However, an important limitation of this strategy is that cell death does not occur immediately after telomerase ablation, but rather after several cell divisions required to reach critically short telomeres. We, therefore, hypothesize that telomerase inhibition would only be effective in glioblastomas with low tumor burden. METHODS: We used CRISPR interference to knock down TERT expression in TERT promoter-mutant glioblastoma cell lines and patient-derived models. We then measured viability using serial proliferation assays. We also assessed for features of telomere crisis by measuring telomere length and chromatin bridge formation. Finally, we used a doxycycline-inducible CRISPR interference system to knock down TERT expression in vivo early and late in tumor development. RESULTS: Upon TERT inactivation, glioblastoma cells lose their proliferative ability over time and exhibit telomere shortening and chromatin bridge formation. In vivo, survival is only prolonged when TERT knockdown is induced shortly after tumor implantation, but not when the tumor burden is high. CONCLUSIONS: Our results support the idea that telomerase inhibition would be most effective at treating glioblastomas with low tumor burden, for example in the adjuvant setting after surgical debulking and chemoradiation.

Multiomic characterization of oncogenic signaling mediated by wild-type and mutant RIT1.

Aberrant activation of the RAS family of guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases) is prevalent in lung adenocarcinoma, with somatic mutation of KRAS occurring in ~30% of tumors. We previously identified somatic mutations and amplifications of the gene encoding RAS family GTPase RIT1 in lung adenocarcinomas. To explore the biological pathways regulated by RIT1 and how they relate to the oncogenic KRAS network, we performed quantitative proteomic, phosphoproteomic, and transcriptomic profiling of isogenic lung epithelial cells in which we ectopically expressed wild-type or cancer-associated variants of RIT1 and KRAS. We found that both mutant KRAS and mutant RIT1 promoted canonical RAS signaling and that overexpression of wild-type RIT1 partially phenocopied oncogenic RIT1 and KRAS, including induction of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Our findings suggest that RIT1 protein abundance is a factor in its pathogenic function. Therefore, chromosomal amplification of wild-type RIT1 in lung and other cancers may be tumorigenic.

Integrative oncogene-dependency mapping identifies RIT1 vulnerabilities and synergies in lung cancer.

CRISPR-based cancer dependency maps are accelerating advances in cancer precision medicine, but adequate functional maps are limited to the most common oncogenes. To identify opportunities for therapeutic intervention in other rarer subsets of cancer, we investigate the oncogene-specific dependencies conferred by the lung cancer oncogene, RIT1. Here, genome-wide CRISPR screening in KRAS, EGFR, and RIT1-mutant isogenic lung cancer cells identifies shared and unique vulnerabilities of each oncogene. Combining this genetic data with small-molecule sensitivity profiling, we identify a unique vulnerability of RIT1-mutant cells to loss of spindle assembly checkpoint regulators. Oncogenic RIT1M90I weakens the spindle assembly checkpoint and perturbs mitotic timing, resulting in sensitivity to Aurora A inhibition. In addition, we observe synergy between mutant RIT1 and activation of YAP1 in multiple models and frequent nuclear overexpression of YAP1 in human primary RIT1-mutant lung tumors. These results provide a genome-wide atlas of oncogenic RIT1 functional interactions and identify components of the RAS pathway, spindle assembly checkpoint, and Hippo/YAP1 network as candidate therapeutic targets in RIT1-mutant lung cancer.

Genetic Ancestry Contributes to Somatic Mutations in Lung Cancers from Admixed Latin American Populations.

Inherited lung cancer risk, particularly in nonsmokers, is poorly understood. Genomic and ancestry analysis of 1,153 lung cancers from Latin America revealed striking associations between Native American ancestry and their somatic landscape, including tumor mutational burden, and specific driver mutations in EGFR, KRAS, and STK11. A local Native American ancestry risk score was more strongly correlated with EGFR mutation frequency compared with global ancestry correlation, suggesting that germline genetics (rather than environmental exposure) underlie these disparities. SIGNIFICANCE: The frequency of somatic EGFR and KRAS mutations in lung cancer varies by ethnicity, but we do not understand why. Our study suggests that the variation in EGFR and KRAS mutation frequency is associated with genetic ancestry and suggests further studies to identify germline alleles that underpin this association.See related commentary by Gomez et al., p. 534.This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 521.

RNA isoform screens uncover the essentiality and tumor-suppressor activity of ultraconserved poison exons.

While RNA-seq has enabled comprehensive quantification of alternative splicing, no correspondingly high-throughput assay exists for functionally interrogating individual isoforms. We describe pgFARM (paired guide RNAs for alternative exon removal), a CRISPR-Cas9-based method to manipulate isoforms independent of gene inactivation. This approach enabled rapid suppression of exon recognition in polyclonal settings to identify functional roles for individual exons, such as an SMNDC1 cassette exon that regulates pan-cancer intron retention. We generalized this method to a pooled screen to measure the functional relevance of 'poison' cassette exons, which disrupt their host genes' reading frames yet are frequently ultraconserved. Many poison exons were essential for the growth of both cultured cells and lung adenocarcinoma xenografts, while a subset had clinically relevant tumor-suppressor activity. The essentiality and cancer relevance of poison exons are likely to contribute to their unusually high conservation and contrast with the dispensability of other ultraconserved elements for viability.

Directed evolution of a remarkably efficient Kdnase from a bacterial neuraminidase.

N-acetylneuraminic acid (5-acetamido-3,5-dideoxy-d-glycero-d-galacto-non-2-ulosonic acid), which is the principal sialic acid family member of the non-2-ulosonic acids and their various derivatives, is often found at the terminal position on the glycan chains that adorn all vertebrate cells. This terminal position combined with subtle variations in structure and linkage to the underlying glycan chains between humans and other mammals points to the importance of this diverse group of nine-carbon sugars as indicators of the unique aspects of human evolution and is relevant to understanding an array of human conditions. Enzymes that catalyze the removal N-acetylneuraminic acid from glycoconjugates are called neuraminidases. However, despite their documented role in numerous diseases, due to the promiscuous activity of many neuraminidases, our knowledge of the functions and metabolism of many sialic acids and the effect of the attachment to cellular glycans is limited. To this end, through a concerted effort of generation of random and site-directed mutagenesis libraries, subsequent screens and positive and negative evolutionary selection protocols, we succeeded in identifying three enzyme variants of the neuraminidase from the soil bacterium Micromonospora viridifaciens with markedly altered specificity for the hydrolysis of natural Kdn (3-deoxy-d-glycero-d-galacto-non-2-ulosonic acid) glycosidic linkages compared to those of N-acetylneuraminic acid. These variants catalyze the hydrolysis of Kdn-containing disaccharides with catalytic efficiencies (second-order rate constants: kcat/Km) of greater than 105 M-1 s-1; the best variant displayed an efficiency of >106 M-1 s-1 at its optimal pH.

High-throughput Phenotyping of Lung Cancer Somatic Mutations.

Recent genome sequencing efforts have identified millions of somatic mutations in cancer. However, the functional impact of most variants is poorly understood. Here we characterize 194 somatic mutations identified in primary lung adenocarcinomas. We present an expression-based variant-impact phenotyping (eVIP) method that uses gene expression changes to distinguish impactful from neutral somatic mutations. eVIP identified 69% of mutations analyzed as impactful and 31% as functionally neutral. A subset of the impactful mutations induces xenograft tumor formation in mice and/or confers resistance to cellular EGFR inhibition. Among these impactful variants are rare somatic, clinically actionable variants including EGFR S645C, ARAF S214C and S214F, ERBB2 S418T, and multiple BRAF variants, demonstrating that rare mutations can be functionally important in cancer.

Serum microRNAs are early indicators of survival after radiation-induced hematopoietic injury.

Accidental radiation exposure is a threat to human health that necessitates effective clinical planning and diagnosis. Minimally invasive biomarkers that can predict long-term radiation injury are urgently needed for optimal management after a radiation accident. We have identified serum microRNA (miRNA) signatures that indicate long-term impact of total body irradiation (TBI) in mice when measured within 24 hours of exposure. Impact of TBI on the hematopoietic system was systematically assessed to determine a correlation of residual hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) with increasing doses of radiation. Serum miRNA signatures distinguished untreated mice from animals exposed to radiation and correlated with the impact of radiation on HSCs. Mice exposed to sublethal (6.5 Gy) and lethal (8 Gy) doses of radiation were indistinguishable for 3 to 4 weeks after exposure. A serum miRNA signature detectable 24 hours after radiation exposure consistently segregated these two cohorts. Furthermore, using either a radioprotective agent before, or radiation mitigation after, lethal radiation, we determined that the serum miRNA signature correlated with the impact of radiation on animal health rather than the radiation dose. Last, using humanized mice that had been engrafted with human CD34(+) HSCs, we determined that the serum miRNA signature indicated radiation-induced injury to the human bone marrow cells. Our data suggest that serum miRNAs can serve as functional dosimeters of radiation, representing a potential breakthrough in early assessment of radiation-induced hematopoietic damage and timely use of medical countermeasures to mitigate the long-term impact of radiation.

Sublethal concentrations of 17-AAG suppress homologous recombination DNA repair and enhance sensitivity to carboplatin and olaparib in HR proficient ovarian cancer cells.

The promise of PARP-inhibitors(PARPis) in the management of epithelial ovarian cancer(EOC) is tempered by the fact that approximately 50% of patients with homologous recombination (HR)-proficient tumors do not respond well to these agents. Combination of PARPis with agents that inhibit HR may represent an effective strategy to enhance their activity in HR-proficient tumors. Using a bioinformatics approach, we identified that heat shock protein 90 inhibitors(HSP90i) may suppress HR and thus revert HR-proficient to HR-deficient tumors. Analysis of publicly available gene expression data showed that exposure of HR-proficient breast cancer cell lines to HSP90i 17-AAG(17-allylamino-17-demethoxygeldanamycin) downregulated HR, ATM and Fanconi Anemia pathways. In HR-proficient EOC cells, 17-AAG suppressed HR as assessed using the RAD51 foci formation assay and this was further confirmed using the Direct Repeat-GFP reporter assay. Furthermore, 17-AAG downregulated BRCA1 and/or RAD51 protein levels, and induced significantly more γH2AX activation in combination with olaparib compared to olaparib alone. Finally, sublethal concentrations of 17-AAG sensitized HR-proficient EOC lines to olaparib and carboplatin but did not affect sensitivity of the HR-deficient OVCAR8 line arguing that the 17-AAG mediated sensitization is dependent on suppression of HR. These results provide a preclinical rationale for using a combination of olaparib/17-AAG in HR-proficient EOC.

Chemical insight into the emergence of influenza virus strains that are resistant to Relenza.

A reagent panel containing ten 4-substituted 4-nitrophenyl α-D-sialosides and a second panel of the corresponding sialic acid glycals were synthesized and used to probe the inhibition mechanism for two neuraminidases, the N2 enzyme from influenza type A virus and the enzyme from Micromonospora viridifaciens. For the viral enzyme the logarithm of the inhibition constant (Ki) correlated with neither the logarithm of the catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) nor catalytic proficiency (kcat/Km kun). These linear free energy relationship data support the notion that these inhibitors, which include the therapeutic agent Relenza, are not transition state mimics for the enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis reaction. Moreover, for the influenza enzyme, a correlation (slope, 0.80 ± 0.08) is observed between the logarithms of the inhibition (Ki) and Michaelis (Km) constants. We conclude that the free energy for Relenza binding to the influenza enzyme mimics the enzyme-substrate interactions at the Michaelis complex. Thus, an influenza mutational response to a 4-substituted sialic acid glycal inhibitor can weaken the interactions between the inhibitor and the viral neuraminidase without a concomitant decrease in free energy of binding for the substrate at the enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis transition state. The current findings make it clear that new structural motifs and/or substitution patterns need to be developed in the search for a bona fide influenza viral neuraminidase transition state analogue inhibitor.

Treatment of alopecia X with medroxyprogesterone acetate.

BACKGROUND: Alopecia X is a common cause of noninflammatory alopecia in Pomeranian dogs. In the past, treatment with growth hormone injections resulted in hair regrowth in many individuals. Progesterone can induce mammary-derived growth hormone and is used to treat dogs with congenital growth hormone deficiency. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: To determine whether progesterone induces endogenous insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and causes hair regrowth in dogs with alopecia X. ANIMALS: Eight neutered Pomeranian dogs with alopecia X for 1-2 years. METHODS: In part 1, two male and three female dogs received 5 mg/kg medroxyprogesterone acetate injected subcutaneously (s.c.) every 4 weeks for a total of four injections. In part 2, one male and two female dogs received 10 mg/kg medroxyprogesterone acetate injected s.c. every 4 weeks for four injections. Dogs were monitored monthly with physical examinations and complete blood counts, chemistry panels and urinalyses. In part 3, two coated Pomeranian dogs and two normal-coated small breed dogs received two s.c. injections of 10 mg/kg medroxyprogesterone acetate. Serum was saved from each visit for IGF-1 analysis. RESULTS: In part 1, two dogs had partial hair regrowth of ~40-60%. In part 2, one dog had partial hair regrowth and one dog had complete hair regrowth 2 months after completion of the study. Unlike the normal-coated dogs, whose IGF-1 concentrations increased, the IGF-1 concentrations in alopecic and coated Pomeranian dogs were low and remained unchanged. No adverse effects were noted. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Results of this study showed that medroxyprogesterone injections resulted in partial hair regrowth in three and complete hair regrowth in one of eight Pomeranian dogs with alopecia X.

Bacterial and viral sialidases: contribution of the conserved active site glutamate to catalysis.

Mutagenesis of the conserved glutamic acid of influenza type A (E277) and Micromonospora viridifaciens (E260) sialidases was performed to probe the contribution of this strictly conserved residue to catalysis. Kinetic studies of the E260D and E260C M. viridifaciens mutant enzymes reveal that the overall mechanism of action has not changed. That is, the mutants are retaining sialidases in which glycosylation and deglycosylation are rate-limiting for k(cat)/K(m) and k(cat), respectively. The solvent kinetic isotope effect and proton inventory on k(cat) for the E260C mutant sialidase provide strong evidence that the newly installed cysteine residue provides little catalytic acceleration. The results are consistent with the conserved aspartic acid residue (D92) becoming the key general acid/base residue in the catalytic cycle. In addition, the E277D mutant influenza type A sialidase is catalytically active toward 4-nitrophenyl α-D-sialoside, although no measurable hydrolysis of natural substrates was observed. Thus, mutating the glutamate residue (E277) to an aspartate increases the activation free energy of hydrolysis for natural substrates by >22 kJ/mol.

Brønsted analysis of an enzyme-catalyzed pseudo-deglycosylation reaction: mechanism of desialylation in sialidases.

The Micromonospora viridifaciens Y370G inverting mutant sialidase has been found to possess beta-sialidase activity with various fluoro-substituted phenyl beta-sialosides. A reagent panel of seven mono- and difluorophenyl beta-d-sialosides was synthesized, and these compounds were used, in conjunction with the parent phenyl beta-d-sialoside, to probe the mechanism of M. viridifaciens Y370G mutant sialidase-catalyzed hydrolyses. These hydrolysis reactions mimic the deglycosylation reaction step of the crucial tyrosinyl enzyme-bound intermediate that is formed during the corresponding wild-type sialidase reactions. The derived Brønsted parameter (beta(lg)) on k(cat)/K(m) is -0.46 +/- 0.02 for the four substrates that display significant activity, and these span a range of leaving group abilities (as judged by the pK(a) of their conjugate acids being between 7.09 and 9.87). The 4-fluoro, 2,3- and 2,5-difluorosubstrates display a diminished activity, whereas the 3,5-difluoro compound undergoes catalyzed hydrolysis exceedingly slowly. These observations, taken with solvent deuterium kinetic isotope effects (k(H(2))(O)/k(D(2))(O)) on the catalyzed hydrolysis of the 2-fluorophenyl substrate of 0.88 +/- 0.24 (k(cat)/K(m)) and 1.16 +/- 0.12 (k(cat)) and the poor inhibition shown by phenol (IC(50) > 1 mM), are consistent with glycosidic C-O cleavage being rate determining for both k(cat)/K(m) and k(cat) with little or no protonation of the departing aryloxide leaving group. The kinetic data reported herein are consistent with rate-limiting glycoside hydrolysis occurring via two distinct transition states that incorporates a nonproductive binding component for the tighter binding substrates.

Structure and role of sialic acids on the surface of Aspergillus fumigatus conidiospores.

Aspergillus fumigatus is an opportunistic fungal pathogen that causes a life-threatening invasive fungal disease (invasive aspergillosis, IA) in immunocompromised individuals. The first step of pathogenesis is thought to be the attachment of conidia to proteins in lung tissue. Previous studies in our laboratory have shown that conidia adhere to basal lamina proteins via negatively charged sugars on their surface, presumably sialic acids. Sialic acids are a family of more than 50 substituted derivatives of a nine-carbon monosaccharide, neuraminic acid. The purpose of this study was 2-fold: (1) to determine the structure of sialic acids and the glycan acceptor on A. fumigatus oligosaccharides and (2) to determine the effect on the removal of sialic acids from conidia on conidial binding to the extracellular matrix protein fibronectin and phagocytosis of conidia by cultured macrophages and type 2 pneumocytes. Surface sialic acids were removed using Micromonospora viridifaciens sialidase or using acetic acid, mild acid hydrolysis. Lectin binding studies revealed that the majority of conidial sialic acids are alpha2,6-linked to a galactose residue. High-pressure liquid chromatography of derivatized sialic acids released from conidia revealed that unsubstituted N-acetylneuraminic acid is the predominant sialic acid on the surface of conidia. Enzymatic removal of sialic acid significantly decreased the binding of conidia to fibronectin by greater than 65% when compared with sham-treated controls. In addition, removal of sialic acids decreased conidial uptake by cultured murine macrophages and Type 2 pneumocytes by 33% and 53%, respectively. Hence, sialylated molecules on A. fumigatus conidia are ligands for both professional and nonprofessional phagocytes.

The hydrolase and transferase activity of an inverting mutant sialidase using non-natural beta-sialoside substrates.

The Y370G inverting mutant sialidase from Micromonospora viridifaciens possesses beta-sialidase activity with phenyl beta-sialoside (Ph-betaNeuAc) to give alpha-sialic acid as the first formed product. The derived catalytic rate constants for k(cat) and k(cat)/K(m) are 13.3 +/- 0.3 and (2.9 +/- 0.3) x 10(5) M(-)(1) s(-)(1), respectively. This enzyme is highly specific for the phenyl substrate, with substituted phenyl and thiophenyl leaving groups having k(cat) values that are at least 1000-fold lower. In addition, the Y370G mutant can transfer the sialic acid moiety from Ph-betaNeuAc to lactose in yields of up to 13%. Greater than 90% of the sialyl-lactose product formed in the coupling reactions is the alpha-2,6-isomer. A library encoding 6 x 10(5) different sialidases was constructed by mutating Y370, E260, T309, N310, and N311, residues that include and are proximal the catalytic tyrosine residue. A total of 2628 individuals were screened for hydrolytic activity against 4-nitrophenyl 2-thio-beta-sialoside and 4-methylumbelliferyl beta-sialoside. However, none of the mutants screened possessed a significant activity against either of the beta-sialosides.

Mechanistic requirements for the efficient enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis of thiosialosides.

The sialidase from Micromonospora viridifaciens has been found to catalyze the hydrolysis of aryl 2-thio-alpha-D-sialosides with remarkable efficiency: the first- and second-order rate constants, kcat and kcat/Km, for the enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis of PNP-S-NeuAc are 196 +/- 5 s(-1) and (6.7 +/- 0.7) x 10(5) M(-1) s(-1), respectively. A reagent panel of eight aryl 2-thio-alpha-D-sialosides was synthesized and used to probe the mechanism for the M. viridifaciens sialidase-catalyzed hydrolysis reaction. In the case of the wild-type enzyme, the derived Brønsted parameters (beta(lg)) on kcat and kcat/Km are -0.83 +/- 0.11 and -1.27 +/- 0.17 for substrates with thiophenoxide leaving groups of pKa values > or = 4.5. For the general-acid mutant, D92G, the derived beta(lg) value on kcat for the same set of leaving groups is -0.82 +/- 0.12. When the conjugate acid of the departing thiophenol was < or = 4.5, the derived Brønsted slopes for both the wild-type and the D92G mutant sialidase were close to zero. In contrast, the nucleophilic mutant, Y370G, did not display a similar break in the Brønsted plots, and the corresponding values for beta(lg), for the three most reactive aryl 2-thiosialosides, on kcat and kcat/Km are -0.76 +/- 0.28 and -0.84 +/- 0.04, respectively. Thus, for the Y370G enzyme glycosidic C-S bond cleavage is rate-determining for both kcat and kcat/Km, whereas, for both the wild-type and D92G mutant enzymes, the presented data are consistent with a change in rate-determining step from glycosidic C-S bond cleavage for substrates in which the pKa of the conjugate acid of the leaving group is > or = 4.5, to either deglycosylation (kcat) or a conformational change that occurs prior to C-S bond cleavage (kcat/Km) for the most activated leaving groups. Thus, the enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis of 2-thiosialosides is strongly catalyzed by the nucleophilic tyrosine residue, yet the C-S bond cleavage does not require the conserved aspartic acid residue (D92) to act as a general-acid catalyst.

Natural sialoside analogues for the determination of enzymatic rate constants.

Two isomeric 4-methylumbelliferyl-alpha-D-N-acetylneuraminylgalactopyranosides (1 and 2) were synthesised. These compounds contain either the natural alpha-2,3 or alpha-2,6 sialyl-galactosyl linkages, as well as an attached 4-methylumbelliferone for convenient detection of their hydrolyses. These compounds were designed as natural sialoside analogues to be used in a continuous assay of sialidase activity, where the sialidase-catalysed reaction is coupled with an exo-beta-galactosidase-catalysed hydrolysis of the released galactoside to give free 4-methylumbelliferone. The kinetic parameters for 1 and 2 were measured using the wild-type and nucleophilic mutant Y370G recombinant sialidase from Micromonospora viridifaciens. Kinetic parameters for these analogues measured using the new continuous assay were in good agreement with the parameters for the natural substrate, 3'-sialyl lactose. Given the selection of commercially available exo-beta-galactosidases that possess a variety of pH optima, this new method was used to characterise the full pH profile of the wild-type sialidase with the natural sialoside analogue 1. Thus, use of these new substrates 1 and 2 in a continuous assay mode, which can be detected by UV/Vis or fluorescence spectroscopy, makes characterisation of sialidase activity with natural sialoside linkages much more facile.

Two nucleophilic mutants of the Micromonospora viridifaciens sialidase operate with retention of configuration by two different mechanisms.

Mutants of the Micromonospora viridifaciens sialidase, Y370E and Y370F, are catalytically active retaining enzymes that operate by different mechanisms. Previous substitutions with smaller amino acids, including Y370D, yielded inverting sialidases. At least one water molecule can fit into the active-site cavity of this mutant and act as a nucleophile from the face opposite the leaving group (Biochemistry 2003, 42, 12 682). Thus, addition of a CH(2) unit (Asp versus Glu) changes the mechanism from inversion back to retention of configuration. Based on Brønsted beta(lg) values, it is proposed that the Y370E mutant reacts by a double-displacement mechanism (beta(lg) on k(cat)/K(m) -0.36+/-0.04) with Glu370 acting as the nucleophile. However, the Y370F mutant (beta(lg) on k(cat)/K(m) -0.79+/-0.12) reacts via a dissociative transition state. The crystal structure of the Y370F mutant complexed with 2-deoxy-2,3-dehydro-N-acetylneuraminic acid shows no significant active-site perturbation relative to the wild-type enzyme.

Galactose recognition by the carbohydrate-binding module of a bacterial sialidase.

Glycoside hydrolases often possess carbohydrate-binding modules (CBMs) in addition to their catalytic domains, which help target the enzymes to appropriate substrates and thereby increase their catalytic efficiency. Sialidases hydrolyse the release of sialic acid from a variety of glycoconjugates and play significant roles in the pathogenesis of a number of important diseases. The sialidase from Micromonospora viridifaciens has a CBM which recognizes galactose. The CBM is linked to the catalytic domain by an immunoglobulin-like domain, resulting in the galactose binding site sitting above the catalytic site, suggesting an interplay between the two sites. By studying nine crystallographically independent structures of the M. viridifaciens sialidase, the relative flexibility of the three domains was analysed. A detailed study is also presented of the recognition of galactose and lactose by the M. viridifaciens CBM. The striking structure of this sialidase suggests a role for the CBM in binding to galactose residues unmasked by the adjacent catalytic site.