Periconceptional ethanol exposure induces a sex specific diuresis and increase in AQP2 and AVPR2 in the kidneys of aged rat offspring.

Maternal alcohol consumption can impair renal development and program kidney dysfunction in offspring. Given that most women who drink alcohol cease consumption upon pregnancy recognition, we aimed to investigate the effect of alcohol around the time of conception (PC:EtOH) on offspring renal development and function. Rats received a liquid diet ±12.5% v/v ethanol from 4 days before to 4 days after mating. At postnatal day 30, nephron number was assessed. Urine flow and electrolyte (Na, K, Cl) excretion was measured at 6 and 19 months and blood pressure at 12 months. At 19 months, kidneys were collected for gene and protein analysis and assessment of collecting duct length. At postnatal day 30, PC:EtOH offspring had fewer nephrons. At 6 months, PC:EtOH exposure did not alter urine flow nor affect blood pressure at 12 months. At 19 months, female but not male offspring exposed to PC:EtOH drank more water and had a higher urine flow despite no differences in plasma arginine vasopressin (AVP) concentrations. Aqp2 mRNA and Avpr2 mRNA and protein expression was increased in kidneys from female PC:EtOH offspring but collecting duct lengths were similar. Immunofluorescent staining revealed diffuse cytoplasmic distribution of AQP2 protein in kidneys from PC:EtOH females, compared with controls with apical AQP2 localization. PC:EtOH resulted in a low nephron endowment and in female offspring, associated with age-related diuresis. Changes in expression and cellular localization of AQP2 likely underpin this disturbance in water homeostasis and highlight the need for alcohol to be avoided in early pregnancy.

Adverse prenatal environment and kidney development: implications for programing of adult disease.

The 'developmental origins of health and disease' hypothesis suggests that many adult-onset diseases can be attributed to altered growth and development during early life. Perturbations during gestation can be detrimental and lead to an increased risk of developing renal, cardiovascular, metabolic, and neurocognitive dysfunction in adulthood. The kidney has emerged as being especially vulnerable to insult at almost any stage of development resulting in a reduction in nephron endowment. In both humans and animal models, a reduction in nephron endowment is strongly associated with an increased risk of hypertension. The focus of this review is twofold: i) to determine the importance of specific periods during development on long-term programing and ii) to examine the effects of maternal perturbations on the developing kidney and how this may program adult-onset disease. Recent evidence has suggested that insults occurring around the time of conception also have the capacity to influence long-term health. Although epigenetic mechanisms are implicated in mediating these outcomes, it is unclear as to how these may impact on kidney development. This presents exciting new challenges and areas for research.

Thinking outside the (voice) box: a case study of students' perceptions of the relevance of anatomy to speech pathology.

Speech pathology students readily identify the importance of a sound understanding of anatomical structures central to their intended profession. In contrast, they often do not recognize the relevance of a broader understanding of structure and function. This study aimed to explore students' perceptions of the relevance of anatomy to speech pathology. The effect of two learning activities on students' perceptions was also evaluated. First, a written assignment required students to illustrate the relevance of anatomy to speech pathology by using an example selected from one of the four alternative structures. The second approach was the introduction of brief "scenarios" with directed questions into the practical class. The effects of these activities were assessed via two surveys designed to evaluate students' perceptions of the relevance of anatomy before and during the course experience. A focus group was conducted to clarify and extend discussion of issues arising from the survey data. The results showed that the students perceived some course material as irrelevant to speech pathology. The importance of relevance to the students' "state" motivation was well supported by the data. Although the students believed that the learning activities helped their understanding of the relevance of anatomy, some structures were considered less relevant at the end of the course. It is likely that the perceived amount of content and surface approach to learning may have prevented students from "thinking outside the box" regarding which anatomical structures are relevant to the profession.

Immunohistochemical study of cutaneous nerves in the emu.

The distribution and chemical content of cutaneous nerves in 3- to 13-day-old emu chicks (Dromaius novaehollandiae) were examined by using double-labelling immunohistochemistry. Seven different subpopulations of cutaneous nerves were identified based on their neurochemistry. No intraepidermal nerve fibres were found. However, axons were located within the dermis and were often associated with blood vessels, pennamotor muscles and feather follicles or innervated Herbst corpuscles. Both similarities and differences exist between subpopulations of cutaneous nerves in the emu and volant birds. As in volant birds, a subpopulation of cutaneous axons innervates the superficial skin layers and contains immunoreactivity to both substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP). This suggests that the neuropeptide content of these presumptive free nerve endings is conserved throughout the evolution of birds. In contrast, Herbst corpuscles in the emu are innervated by axons that contain immunoreactivity for CGRP or neuropeptide Y (NPY) but that lack the calbindin D-28k immunoreactivity found in fibres innervating Herbst corpuscles of volant birds. Herbst corpuscles therefore may have a different chemical content in a flightless species from that in volant birds.