Catalytically impaired TrpA subunit of tryptophan synthase from Chlamydia trachomatis is an allosteric regulator of TrpB.

Intracellular growth and pathogenesis of Chlamydia species is controlled by the availability of tryptophan, yet the complete biosynthetic pathway for l-Trp is absent among members of the genus. Some representatives, however, preserve genes encoding tryptophan synthase, TrpAB - a bifunctional enzyme catalyzing the last two steps in l-Trp synthesis. TrpA (subunit α) converts indole-3-glycerol phosphate into indole and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (α reaction). The former compound is subsequently used by TrpB (subunit ß) to produce l-Trp in the presence of l-Ser and a pyridoxal 5'-phosphate cofactor (ß reaction). Previous studies have indicated that in Chlamydia, TrpA has lost its catalytic activity yet remains associated with TrpB to support the ß reaction. Here, we provide detailed analysis of the TrpAB from C. trachomatis D/UW-3/CX, confirming that accumulation of mutations in the active site of TrpA renders it enzymatically inactive, despite the conservation of the catalytic residues. We also show that TrpA remains a functional component of the TrpAB complex, increasing the activity of TrpB by four-fold. The side chain of non-conserved ßArg267 functions as cation effector, potentially rendering the enzyme less susceptible to the solvent ion composition. The observed structural and functional changes detected herein were placed in a broader evolutionary and genomic context, allowing identification of these mutations in relation to their trp gene contexts in which they occur. Moreover, in agreement with the in vitro data, partial relaxation of purifying selection for TrpA, but not for TrpB, was detected, reinforcing a partial loss of TrpA functions during the course of evolution.

Conservation of the structure and function of bacterial tryptophan synthases.

Tryptophan biosynthesis is one of the most characterized processes in bacteria, in which the enzymes from Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli serve as model systems. Tryptophan synthase (TrpAB) catalyzes the final two steps of tryptophan biosynthesis in plants, fungi and bacteria. This pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzyme consists of two protein chains, α (TrpA) and ß (TrpB), functioning as a linear αßßα heterotetrameric complex containing two TrpAB units. The reaction has a complicated, multistep mechanism resulting in the ß-replacement of the hydroxyl group of l-serine with an indole moiety. Recent studies have shown that functional TrpAB is required for the survival of pathogenic bacteria in macrophages and for evading host defense. Therefore, TrpAB is a promising target for drug discovery, as its orthologs include enzymes from the important human pathogens Streptococcus pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila and Francisella tularensis, the causative agents of pneumonia, legionnaires' disease and tularemia, respectively. However, specific biochemical and structural properties of the TrpABs from these organisms have not been investigated. To fill the important phylogenetic gaps in the understanding of TrpABs and to uncover unique features of TrpAB orthologs to spearhead future drug-discovery efforts, the TrpABs from L. pneumophila, F. tularensis and S. pneumoniae have been characterized. In addition to kinetic properties and inhibitor-sensitivity data, structural information gathered using X-ray crystallo-graphy is presented. The enzymes show remarkable structural conservation, but at the same time display local differences in both their catalytic and allosteric sites that may be responsible for the observed differences in catalysis and inhibitor binding. This functional dissimilarity may be exploited in the design of species-specific enzyme inhibitors.

Quorum Sensing Signal Selectivity and the Potential for Interspecies Cross Talk.

Many species of proteobacteria communicate with kin and coordinate group behaviors through a form of cell-cell signaling called acyl-homoserine lactone (AHL) quorum sensing (QS). Most AHL receptors are thought to be specific for their cognate signal, ensuring that bacteria cooperate and share resources only with closely related kin cells. Although specificity is considered fundamental to QS, there are reports of "promiscuous" receptors that respond broadly to nonself signals. These promiscuous responses expand the function of QS systems to include interspecies interactions and have been implicated in both interspecies competition and cooperation. Because bacteria are frequently members of polymicrobial communities, AHL cross talk between species could have profound impacts. To better understand the prevalence of QS promiscuity, we measured the activity of seven QS receptors in their native host organisms. To facilitate comparison of our results to previous studies, we also measured receptor activity using heterologous expression in Escherichia coli We found that the standard E. coli methods consistently overestimate receptor promiscuity and sensitivity and that overexpression of the receptors is sufficient to account for the discrepancy between native and E. coli reporters. Additionally, receptor overexpression resulted in AHL-independent activity in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Using our activation data, we developed a quantitative score of receptor selectivity. We find that the receptors display a wide range of selectivity and that most receptors respond sensitively and strongly to at least one nonself signal, suggesting a broad potential for cross talk between QS systems.IMPORTANCE Specific recognition of cognate signals is considered fundamental to cell signaling circuits as it creates fidelity in the communication system. In bacterial quorum sensing (QS), receptor specificity ensures that bacteria cooperate only with kin. There are examples, however, of QS receptors that respond promiscuously to multiple signals. "Eavesdropping" by these promiscuous receptors can be beneficial in both interspecies competition and cooperation. Despite their potential significance, we know little about the prevalence of promiscuous QS receptors. Further, many studies rely on methods requiring receptor overexpression, which is known to increase apparent promiscuity. By systematically studying QS receptors in their natural parent strains, we find that the receptors display a wide range of selectivity and that there is potential for significant cross talk between QS systems. Our results provide a basis for hypotheses about the evolution and function of promiscuous signal receptors and for predictions about interspecies interactions in complex microbial communities.

The Expanding Diversity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Drug Targets.

After decades of relative inactivity, a large increase in efforts to discover antitubercular therapeutics has brought insights into the biology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and promising new drugs such as bedaquiline, which inhibits ATP synthase, and the nitroimidazoles delamanid and pretomanid, which inhibit both mycolic acid synthesis and energy production. Despite these advances, the drug discovery pipeline remains underpopulated. The field desperately needs compounds with novel mechanisms of action capable of inhibiting multi- and extensively drug -resistant Mtb (M/XDR-TB) and, potentially, nonreplicating Mtb with the hope of shortening the duration of required therapy. New knowledge about Mtb, along with new methods and technologies, has driven exploration into novel target areas, such as energy production and central metabolism, that diverge from the classical targets in macromolecular synthesis. Here, we review new small molecule drug candidates that act on these novel targets to highlight the methods and perspectives advancing the field. These new targets bring with them the aspiration of shortening treatment duration as well as a pipeline of effective regimens against XDR-TB, positioning Mtb drug discovery to become a model for anti-infective discovery.

A small-molecule allosteric inhibitor of Mycobacterium tuberculosis tryptophan synthase.

New antibiotics with novel targets are greatly needed. Bacteria have numerous essential functions, but only a small fraction of such processes-primarily those involved in macromolecular synthesis-are inhibited by current drugs. Targeting metabolic enzymes has been the focus of recent interest, but effective inhibitors have been difficult to identify. We describe a synthetic azetidine derivative, BRD4592, that kills Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) through allosteric inhibition of tryptophan synthase (TrpAB), a previously untargeted, highly allosterically regulated enzyme. BRD4592 binds at the TrpAB α-ß-subunit interface and affects multiple steps in the enzyme's overall reaction, resulting in inhibition not easily overcome by changes in metabolic environment. We show that TrpAB is required for the survival of Mtb and Mycobacterium marinum in vivo and that this requirement may be independent of an adaptive immune response. This work highlights the effectiveness of allosteric inhibition for targeting proteins that are naturally highly dynamic and that are essential in vivo, despite their apparent dispensability under in vitro conditions, and suggests a framework for the discovery of a next generation of allosteric inhibitors.

Loss of a Class A Penicillin-Binding Protein Alters ß-Lactam Susceptibilities in Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Recent studies have renewed interest in ß-lactam antibiotics as a potential treatment for Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. To explore the opportunities and limitations of this approach, we sought to better understand potential resistance mechanisms to ß-lactam antibiotics in M. tuberculosis. We identified mutations in the penicillin-binding protein (PBP) ponA2 that were able to confer some degree of resistance to the cephalosporin subclass of ß-lactams. Surprisingly, deletion of ponA2 also confers resistance, demonstrating that ß-lactam resistance can spontaneously arise from PBP loss of function. We show that ponA2 mutants resistant to the cephalosporin subclass of ß-lactams in fact show increased susceptibility to meropenem, a carbapenem that is known to target l,d-transpeptidases, thereby suggesting that in the absence of PonA2, an alternative mode of peptidoglycan synthesis likely becomes essential. Consistent with this hypothesis, a negative genetic selection identified the l,d-transpeptidase ldtMt2 as essential in the absence of ponA2. The mechanism of ß-lactam resistance we outline is consistent with emerging models of ß-lactam killing, while the investigation of ponA2 downstream and synthetic lethal genes sheds light on the mechanism of cell wall biosynthesis and the interaction between conventional PBPs and l,d-transpeptidases.

Baeyer-Villiger Monooxygenases EthA and MymA Are Required for Activation of Replicating and Non-replicating Mycobacterium tuberculosis Inhibitors.

Successful treatment of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection typically requires a complex regimen administered over at least 6 months. Interestingly, many of the antibiotics used to treat M. tuberculosis are prodrugs that require intracellular activation. Here, we describe three small molecules, active against both replicating and non-replicating M. tuberculosis, that require activation by Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs). Two molecules require BVMO EthA (Rv3854c) for activation and the third molecule requires the BVMO MymA (Rv3083). While EthA is known to activate the antitubercular drug ethionamide, this is the first description of MymA as an activating enzyme of a prodrug. Furthermore, we found that MymA also plays a role in activating ethionamide, with loss of MymA function resulting in ethionamide-resistant M. tuberculosis. These findings suggest overlap in function and specificity of the BVMOs in M. tuberculosis.

Synthesis and structure-activity relationships of phenyl-substituted coumarins with anti-tubercular activity that target FadD32.

In an effort to develop new and potent agents for therapy against tuberculosis, a high-throughput screen was performed against Mycobacterium tuberculosis strain H37Rv. Two 6-aryl-5,7-dimethyl-4-phenylcoumarin compounds 1a and 1b were found with modest activity. A series of coumarin derivatives were synthesized to improve potency and to investigate the structure-activity relationship of the series. Among them, compounds 1o and 2d showed improved activity with IC90 of 2 µM and 0.5 µM, respectively. Further optimization provided compound 3b with better physiochemical properties with IC90 0.4 µM which had activity in a mouse model of infection. The role of the conformation of the 4- and 6-aryl substituents is also described.