Human papilloma virus is associated with breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: There is increasing evidence that high-risk human papilloma virus (HPV) is involved in cancers in addition to cervical cancer. For example, it is generally accepted that HPV has a role in a significant proportion of head and neck tumours, and it has long been hypothesised that hormone dependent oncogenic viruses, such as HPV may have causal roles in some human breast cancers. A number of reports have identified HPV DNA in breast tissue and breast cancer specimens, but these rely on standard polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which is criticised for its propensity for contamination. METHODS: We have used two different technologies, in situ and standard PCR (with sequencing), and histology based on light microscopy. RESULTS: We unambiguously demonstrate the presence of high-risk HPV in the cells of breast cancer specimens and breast cancer cell lines. In addition, we also show that the oncogenic characteristics of HPV associated breast cancer are very similar to HPV-associated cervical cancer. Specifically, that putative koilocytes are present in some HPV associated breast cancers. INTERPRETATION: The above observations indicate a likely causal role for high-risk HPV in human breast cancer and offer the possibility of primary prevention of some breast cancers by vaccination against HPV.

Koilocytes indicate a role for human papilloma virus in breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: High-risk human papilloma viruses (HPVs) are candidates as causal viruses in breast cancer. The scientific challenge is to determine whether HPVs are causal and not merely passengers or parasites. Studies of HPV-related koilocytes in breast cancer offer an opportunity to address this crucial issue. Koilocytes are epithelial cells characterised by perinuclear haloes surrounding condensed nuclei and are commonly present in cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Koilocytosis is accepted as pathognomonic (characteristic of a particular disease) of HPV infection. The aim of this investigation is to determine whether putative koilocytes in normal and malignant breast tissues are because of HPV infection. METHODS: Archival formalin-fixed normal and malignant breast specimens were investigated by histology, in situ PCR with confirmation of the findings by standard PCR and sequencing of the products, plus immunohistochemistry to identify HPV E6 oncoproteins. RESULTS: human papilloma virus-associated koilocytes were present in normal breast skin and lobules and in the breast skin and cancer tissue of patients with ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) and invasive ductal carcinomas (IDCs). INTERPRETATION: As koilocytes are known to be the precursors of some HPV-associated cervical cancer, it follows that HPVs may be causally associated with breast cancer.

Presence of mouse mammary tumour-like virus gene sequences may be associated with morphology of specific human breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: Mouse mammary tumour virus (MMTV) has a proven role in breast carcinogenesis in wild mice and genetically susceptible in-bred mice. MMTV-like env gene sequences, which indicate the presence of a replication-competent MMTV-like virus, have been identified in some human breast cancers, but rarely in normal breast tissues. However, no evidence for a causal role of an MMTV-like virus in human breast cancer has emerged, although there are precedents for associations between specific histological characteristics of human cancers and the presence of oncogenic viruses. AIM: To investigate the possibility of an association between breast cancer and MMTV-like viruses. METHODS: Histological characteristics of invasive ductal human breast cancer specimens were compared with archival MMTV-associated mammary tumours from C3H experimental mice. The presence of MMTV-like env DNA sequences in the human breast cancer specimens was determined by polymerase chain reaction and confirmed by Southern hybridisation. RESULTS: MMTV-like env gene sequences were identified in 22 of 59 (37.3%) human breast cancer specimens. Seventeen of 43 (39.5%) invasive ductal carcinoma breast cancer specimens and 4 of 16 (25%) ductal carcinoma in situ specimens had some histological characteristics, which were similar to MMTV-associated mouse mammary tumours. However, these similarities were not associated with the presence or absence of MMTV-like gene sequences in the human breast tumour specimens. A significant (p = 0.05) correlation was found between the grade of the human breast cancer and similarity to the mouse mammary tumours. The lower the grade, the greater the similarity. CONCLUSION: Some human breast cancer specimens, in which MMTV-like env DNA sequences have been identified, were shown to have histological characteristics (morphology) similar to MMTV-associated mouse mammary tumours. These observations are compatible with, but not conclusive of, an association between the presence of MMTV-like env DNA sequences and some human breast cancers.

Identification of human papillomavirus DNA gene sequences in human breast cancer.

Human papilloma viruses (HPVs) are accepted as being carcinogenic in human cervical and anogenital cancers. The suspicion that HPVs may also have a role in human breast cancer is based on the identification of HPVs in human breast tumours and the immortalisation of normal human breast cells by HPV types 16 and 18. For this investigation, DNA that had been previously extracted and fresh frozen at -70 degrees C from 50 unselected invasive ductal breast cancer specimens were screened by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for HPV type 16, 18 and 33 gene sequences. We show that HPV 18 gene sequences are present in DNA extracted from breast tumours in Australian women. Overall, 24 (48%) of the 50 samples were HPV positive. Overall no correlations with tumour grade, patient survival, steroid receptor status, ERB-2, p53 expression and mutation were observed. Human papilloma viruses may have a role in human breast cancer. We speculate that HPVs may be transmitted by hand from the female perineum to the breast.

Complete switch from Mdm2 to human papillomavirus E6-mediated degradation of p53 in cervical cancer cells.

The E6 oncoprotein of human papillomaviruses (HPVs) that are associated with cervical cancer utilizes the cellular ubiquitin-protein ligase E6-AP to target the tumor suppressor p53 for degradation. In normal cells (i.e., in the absence of E6), p53 is also a target of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Under these conditions, however, p53 degradation is mediated by Mdm2 rather than by E6-AP. Here we show in a mutational analysis that, surprisingly, the structural requirements of p53 to serve as a proteolytic substrate differ between E6 proteins derived from different HPV types and, as expected, between Mdm2 and E6 proteins in vitro and in vivo. Stable expression of such mutants in HPV-negative and HPV-positive cell lines demonstrates that in HPV-positive cancer cells, the E6-dependent pathway of p53 degradation is not only active but, moreover, is required for degradation of p53, whereas the Mdm2-dependent pathway is inactive. Because the p53 pathway was reported to be functional in HPV-positive cancer cells, this finding indicates clearly that the ability of the E6 oncoprotein to target p53 for degradation is required for the growth of HPV-positive cancer cells.

Replication of ONYX-015, a potential anticancer adenovirus, is independent of p53 status in tumor cells.

The 55-kDa E1B protein of adenovirus, which binds to and inactivates the tumor suppressor protein p53, is not expressed in the adenoviral mutant termed ONYX-015 (i.e., dl1520). It was reported that the mutant virus due to a deletion in E1B is able to replicate only in cells deficient for wild-type p53. Accordingly, dl1520 is currently being evaluated as a potential tool in the therapy of p53 deficient cancers. In contrast, we report here that dl1520 replicates independently of the p53 status in various tumor cell lines (U87, RKO, A549, H1299, and U373). In addition, the inhibition of p53-mediated transcriptional activation in wild-type p53 containing U2OS cells, by overexpression of a transdominant negative p53 mutant, did not render the cells permissive for dl1520 replication. Finally, we show that, depending on the multiplicity of infection, the deleted virus is able to replicate in and to kill primary human cells. Thus, the molecular basis for the growth differences of dl1520 within different cell types remains to be determined.

Characterization of sequence elements involved in p53 stability regulation reveals cell type dependence for p53 degradation.

The growth suppressive properties of the tumor suppressor protein p53 are activated upon DNA damage. The activation of p53 is reflected in increased p53 levels which are, at least in part, the result of an extended half-life of the protein. Although this suggests that stabilization of p53 is an intrinsic feature of p53 activation, the mechanisms involved in p53 degradation and stabilization are poorly understood. Here we report on the identification of an internal deletion mutant of wild-type p53, termed delta62-96, which can be stably expressed in various cell lines. This deletion mutant has a turnover rate similar to wild-type p53 and its stability is upregulated by treatment with UV light. In cell lines that express endogenous mutant or no p53, however, delta62-96 appears to be stable, strongly indicating that these cell lines have lost the ability to degrade p53. Further characterization of delta62-96 by mutational analyses defines sequence and structural requirements for p53 degradation and indicates that none of the known p53 phosphorylation sites is essential with respect to p53 stability regulation upon UV-irradiation.

Involvement of RB-1, p53, p16INK4 and telomerase in immortalisation of human cells.

Involvement of the retinoblastoma susceptibility (RB-1), p16INK4, p53 and telomerase genes in immortalisation was examined by determining their status in 15 human cell lines representing four immortalisation complementation groups. No abnormalities of RB-1, p53 and p16INK4 were detected in cell lines containing DNA tumour virus proteins known to bind to the protein products of the RB-1 and p53 genes. In contrast, in all other cell lines from each of the four groups either RB-1 was mutant or p16INK4 protein was undetectable and there were cell lines containing p53 mutations in three of the groups. Telomerase activity was detected in 12/15 lines, including some of the virally immortalised lines and in some lines from each group. Since none of these changes correlated with complementation group, other genetic changes must be required for immortalisation.

SV40-induced immortalization and ras-transformation of human bronchial epithelial cells.

Non-tumorigenic SV40-immortalized human cells may be transformed to tumorigenicity by activated oncogenes, but the molecular genetics of this process are still poorly understood. We describe here 4SV40-transformed bronchial epithelial (BE) cell lines that became immortalized after a period of crisis, and then transfection of 6 BE lines or sub-lines with an activated c-Ha-ras (EJ-ras) oncogene. pSV2neo-transfected cells did not form any tumors in athymic nude mice. Even though each of the EJ-ras-transfected lines was shown to be expressing the mutant ras gene, only one cell line, BEAS-2B, and 2 of its sub-lines were tumorigenic after transfection. We conclude that immortalization is not sufficient for BE cells to be transformed by the EJ-ras oncogene. Thus there are at least 2 unknown genetic events in this in vitro model of carcinogenesis: escape from crisis (immortalization), and development of ability to cooperate with activated ras in tumorigenic transformation. We found no evidence that either immortalization or ability to complement ras is related to abnormalities of the SV40 T antigens, of p110RB or of p53.

HPV-16 E6 and E7 genes, like SV40 early region genes, are insufficient for immortalization of human mesothelial and bronchial epithelial cells.

Simian virus 40 (SV40)-transformed human cells usually have a period of increased proliferative potential that terminates in culture crisis, after which immortalization may or may not occur. This study addresses the question of whether human papillomavirus (HPV)-transformed cells may also undergo crisis. Two types of human epithelial cells were transfected with either HPV-16 E6 and E7 genes or SV40 early region genes, and all transfectants underwent at least 20 more population doublings than the normal cells from which they were derived. Mesothelial cells expressing SV40 or HPV-16 genes mostly entered crisis (4/4 SV40- and 3/4 HPV-transfected clones). Similarly, 1/3 SV40- and 2/3 HPV-transfected bronchial epithelial cell cultures entered crisis. For these two types of epithelial cells, we therefore conclude that HPV-16 E6 and E7 genes, like the SV40 T proteins, are insufficient for immortalization.

In vitro transformation of Li-Fraumeni syndrome fibroblasts by SV40 large T antigen mutants.

Transfection of SV40 early region DNA into normal human diploid fibroblasts (NHDFs) increases their proliferative potential to a limited extent. We have investigated the roles of the SV40 large T antigen (LTAg) regions responsible for binding to the protein products of the retinoblastoma (Rb) and p53 genes in this temporary escape from senescence. Patients encoding LTAg mutants were transfected into NHDFs and into Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) fibroblasts which are heterozygous wild-type (wt)/null-mutant for p53. A LTAg mutated in the p53-binding region (T402DE) had greatly reduced efficiency of focus formation, and a p110Rb-binding mutant was unable to induce any foci. T402DE-induced NHDF foci senesced at the same time as untransfected cells, but the equivalent LFS foci all had increased proliferative potentials, with the greatest increase being seen in clones that lost the wt p53 allele. One LFS clone expressed the T402DE mutant during focus formation, but later lost both the T402DE DNA and the wt p53 allele. We conclude that SV40-induced focus formation in NHDFs requires the LTAg p110Rb-binding region, and is enhanced by loss of normal p53 function. In contrast, increased proliferative potential is primarily due to loss of p53 function.

Assignment of SV40-immortalized cells to more than one complementation group for immortalization.

Human cell lines have been assigned to four complementation groups for immortalization [O.M. Pereira-Smith and J. R. Smith, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85, 6042-6046, 1988]. Three SV40-immortalized epithelial cell lines were fused to cell lines representative of each of these four complementation groups. All three formed senescent hybrids with an SV40-immortalized cell line representative of group A, indicating that SV40 genes do not always cause immortalization via the same genetic mechanism. In contrast to the results of studies with other human cell lines, each of these three cell lines was assigned to more than one complementation group for immortalization. Thus these cell lines may have lost the function of two or more putative senescence genes.

Finite life span of hybrids formed by fusion of different simian virus 40-immortalized human cell lines.

Simian virus 40 (SV40) genes are able to induce immortalization of normal human cells after a culture crisis during which unknown cellular genetic changes presumably occur. To determine whether these genetic changes are always identical, we performed somatic cell hybridization analysis of an SV40-immortalized human bronchial epithelial cell line, BET-1A. Fusion of BET-1A with an SV40-immortalized fibroblast cell line resulted in hybrids that senesced, indicating that these cell lines are in different complementation groups for immortalization.