The emergence of lesbian sexuality and identity cross-culturally: Brazil, Peru, the Philippines, and the United States.

Questionnaire data were collected from 205 lesbians and 224 heterosexual women in Brazil, Peru, the Philippines, and the United States between 1981 and 1988. Items include direction of childhood sexual interests, age of first awareness of sexual attraction, cross-attractions, age of first sexual contact, sex of partner in first sexual contact, age of awareness that sexual attractions were serious, and age of realization of adult sexual orientation. In general, similarities in the development of lesbian sexuality and differences between lesbians and heterosexual women were found, regardless of culture. Findings include: Lesbians were more sexually active as children and displayed more sexual interest in girls than heterosexuals did in boys; lesbians tended to become aware of their attractions to women later than heterosexuals realized attractions to men; lesbians reported considerably more early attraction to men than heterosexuals did to women; lesbians reported earlier sexual contact than did heterosexual women; the sex of the partner of first sexual contact for lesbians was split roughly equally between males and females whereas heterosexuals reported contact with males almost exclusively; childhood awareness that sexual attractions were serious were similar in lesbians and heterosexuals; lesbians defined themselves as homosexual later than heterosexuals defined themselves as heterosexual. We conclude that norms for heterosexual behavior impact the development of lesbian sexuality and identity, impeding, but not obliterating, their development. Lesbian sexuality and identity eventually emerge regardless of culture.

Homosexual orientation in twins: a report on 61 pairs and three triplet sets.

Twin pairs in which at least one twin is homosexual were solicited through announcements in the gay press and personal referrals from 1980 to the present. An 18-page questionnaire on the "sexuality of twins" was filled out by one or both twins. Thirty-eight pairs of monozygotic twins (34 male pairs and 4 female pairs) were found to have a concordance rate of 65.8% for homosexual orientation. Twenty-three pairs of dizygotic twins were found to have a concordance rate of 30.4% for homosexual orientation. In addition, three sets of triplets were obtained. Two sets contained a pair of monozygotic twins concordant for sexual orientation with the third triplet dizygotic and discordant for homosexual orientation. A third triplet set was monozygotic with all three concordant for homosexual orientation. These findings are interpreted as supporting the argument for a biological basis in sexual orientation.

Childhood cross-gender behavior of homosexual females in Brazil, Peru, the Philippines, and the United States.

Heterosexual and homosexual females were interviewed with regard to childhood cross-gender behavior in Brazil, Peru, the Philippines, and the United States. Nine items were used to examine childhood behavior differences between heterosexual and homosexual females. Six of these items (playing with boys' toys, playing with girls' toys, dressing up in men's clothes, dressing up in women's clothes, paying attention to women's fashions, and being considered a tomboy) revealed statistically significant differences between the heterosexual and homosexual females. These differences demonstrated significant cross-cultural consistency, despite cultural variations among the societies examined. Rejection of certain gender-typical activities and interests, as well as involvement in cross-gendered activities and interests, seem to be consistent precursors of adult sexual orientation regardless of the cultural context in which these behaviors emerge.

Biological explanation, psychological explanation, and tolerance of homosexuals: a cross-national analysis of beliefs and attitudes.

Controversies are commonplace among scientists who endorse different ideas about the determinants of homosexual orientation and their concomitant social and political implications. To measure the relationship between beliefs about the determinants of homosexual orientation and attitudes toward homosexuals, we asked 745 respondents in four societies about their beliefs concerning the origins of homosexual orientation. Analysis indicated that subjects who believed that homosexuals are "born that way" held significantly more positive attitudes toward homosexuals than subjects who believed that homosexuals "choose to be that way" and/or "learn to be that way."

A cross-cultural assessment of early cross-gender behavior and familial factors in male homosexuality.

The data presented here are based on interviews of nonclinical homosexual and heterosexual males of comparable social backgrounds in four societies: the United States, Guatemala, Brazil, and the Philippines. Responses to two lines of questioning are analyzed--items having to do with early cross-gender behavior and items having to do with familial factors commonly assumed to be conducive to homosexual orientation. Consistent patterns of early cross-gender behaviors are found in the homosexual groups in all four societies. Inconsistent results are found with respect to the items having to do with familial factors. It is concluded that (1) early cross-gender behavior is an intrinsic characteristic of male homosexuals, wherever they may be found, and (2) familial factors frequently regarded as conducive to homosexuality are probably not causative at all but rather are culturally variable reactions to emerging homosexuality.

Culturally invariable properties of male homosexuality: tentative conclusions from cross-cultural research.

While the behavior of homosexuals in some aspects is subject to cultural variability, this analysis explores the equally important question of cultural invariability. Based on several years of field work in homosexual communities in the United States, Guatemala, Brazil, and the Philippines, six tentative conclusions about cultural invariability are offered: (1) homosexual persons appear in all societies; (2) the percentage of homosexuals in all societies seems to be about the same and remains stable over time; (3) social norms do not impede or facilitate the emergence of homosexual orientation; (4) homosexual subcultures appear in all societies, given sufficient aggregates of people; (5) homosexuals in different societies tend to resemble each other with respect to certain behavioral interests and occupational choices; and (6) all societies produce similar continua from overtly masculine to overtly feminine homosexuals. Implications for this interpretation of homosexuality include the notion that homosexuality is not created by social structural arrangements but is rather a fundamental form of human sexuality acted out in different cultural settings.

The prehomosexual male child in three societies: the United States, Guatemala, Brazil.

The question raised by this article is: do the several behavioral indicators of male homosexuality, which emerge in childhood, appear cross-culturally, or are they limited to American society? These indicators are interest in toys of the opposite sex, cross-dressing, preference for girls' games and activities, preference for the company of women, being regarded as a sissy, and preference for boys in childhood sex play. Data on indicators were obtained from male homosexuals in three societies--the United States, Guatemala, and Brazil--and compared with responses of heterosexuals. It is concluded that the behavioral indicators do occur in these three societies and occur at about the same rate.

Childhood indicators of male homosexuality.

Questionnaires were administered to 206 male homosexuals and 78 male heterosexuals. The most important aspects of the questionnaire dealt with six "childhood indicators" of later adult homosexuality: (1) interest in dolls, (2) cross-dressing, (3) preference for company of girls rather than boys in childhood games, (4) preference for company of older women rather than older men, (5) being regarded by other boys as a sissy, (6) sexual interest in other boys rather than girls in childhood sex play. Significant differences were found between homosexuals and heterosexuals with respect to all six indicators. Moreover, it was found that the stronger one's homosexual orientation the greater was the number of childhood indicators. It is concluded that there are behavioral aspects related to one's sexual orientation which may begin to emerge early in childhood.