Patient and caregiver perspectives on gender disparity in chronic kidney disease: Questionnaire survey, based on an interview study.

BACKGROUND: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) in stages 3-5 without albuminuria occurs more often in women than in men; however, most patients initiating and receiving kidney replacement therapy (KRT) are men. Sex-determined biological factors and gender-related aspects likely both account for this discrepancy. Patient opinions on gender-related discrepancies in kidney care have not been investigated. METHODS: Building upon the findings of semi-structured interviews previously conducted with CKD patients and their caregivers, two questionnaires were developed to investigate patient behavior and opinions relating to gender and CKD. These questionnaires containing 39 items were distributed to eight outpatient clinics in Austria. Responses were descriptively analyzed and compared between genders, as well as between age groups and CKD stages. RESULTS: Questionnaires from 783 patients and 98 caregivers were included in the analysis and covered health awareness and self-management of disease, the impact of gender roles and gender equality, and patient autonomy and trust in the health-care system. 56.1% of men patients and 63.1% of women patients found that women were better at looking after their health compared to men (41.1%/34.3% no difference, 2.8%/2.6% men better). 95.4% of men patients, 95.0% of women patients, 100% of men caregivers and 95.5% of women caregivers stated that all patients with kidney disease were treated completely equally, irrespective of gender. CONCLUSION: Neither the patients nor the caregivers stated gender-determined treatment decisions in CKD care. Both men and women however agreed that women are better at maintaining their own health and excel in disease self-management.

[Consensus recommendations on the diagnosis and treatment of hyponatremia from the Austrian Society for Nephrology 2024]. / Konsensusempfehlungen zur Diagnose und Therapie der Hyponatriämie der Österreichischen Gesellschaft für Nephrologie 2024.

Hyponatremia is a disorder of water homeostasis. Water balance is maintained by the collaboration of renal function and cerebral structures, which regulate thirst mechanisms and secretion of the antidiuretic hormone. Measurement of serum-osmolality, urine osmolality and urine-sodium concentration help to diagnose the different reasons for hyponatremia. Hyponatremia induces cerebral edema and might lead to severe neurological symptoms, which need acute therapy. Also, mild forms of hyponatremia should be treated causally, or at least symptomatically. An inadequate fast increase of the serum sodium level should be avoided, because it raises the risk of cerebral osmotic demyelination. Basic pathophysiological knowledge is necessary to identify the different reasons for hyponatremia which need different therapeutic procedures.

Glomerular Diseases Across Lifespan: Key Differences in Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches.

Glomerular diseases are common causes of chronic kidney disease in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. The epidemiology of glomerular diseases differs between different age groups, with minimal change disease being the leading cause of nephrotic syndrome in childhood, while membranous nephropathy and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis are more common in adulthood. IgA vasculitis is also more common in childhood. Moreover, there is a difference in disease severity with more children presenting with a relapsing form of nephrotic syndrome and a more acute presentation of antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis and concomitant glomerulonephritis, as highlighted by the higher percentage of cellular crescents on kidney biopsy specimens in comparison with older patients. There is also a female preponderance in antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis and more children present with tracheobroncholaryngeal disease. This article aims to summarize differences in the presentation of different glomerular diseases that are encountered commonly by pediatric and adult nephrologists and potential differences in the management.

[Diagnosis and Treatment of IgA Nephropathy-2023]. / Diagnostik und Therapie IgA Nephropathie ­ 2023.

Immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN) is the most common glomerulonephritis. It leads to end-stage kidney disease in about a third of the patients within 10 to 20 years. The pathogenesis of IgAN is incompletely understood. It is believed that a dysregulation of the mucosal immune system leads to undergalactosylation of IgA, followed by formation of IgG autoantibodies against undergalactosylated IgA, circulation of these IgG-IgA immune complexes, deposition of the immune complexes in the mesangium, ultimately resulting in glomerular inflammation. IgAN can occasionally be triggered by other diseases, these secondary causes of IgAN should be identified or ruled out (chronic inflammatory bowel disease, infections, tumors, rheumatic diseases). Characteristic findings of IgAN of variable extent are a nephritic urinary sediment (erythrocytes, acanthocytes, erythrocyte casts), proteinuria, impaired renal function, arterial hypertension, or intermittent painless macrohematuria, especially during infections of the upper respiratory tract. However, the diagnosis of IgAN can only be made by a kidney biopsy. A histological classification (MEST­C score) should always be reported to be able to estimate the prognosis. The most important therapeutic measure is an optimization of the supportive therapy, which includes, among other things, a consistent control of the blood pressure, an inhibition of the RAS, and the administration of an SGLT2 inhibitor. A systemic immunosuppressive therapy with corticosteroids is discussed controversially, should be used restrictively and only administered after an individual benefit-risk assessment under certain conditions that speak for a progressive IgAN. New promising therapeutics are enteral Budesonide or the dual angiotensin-II-receptor- and endothelin-receptor-antagonist Sparsentan. Rapidly progressive IgAN should be treated with corticosteroids and cyclophosphamide like ANCA-associated vasculitis.

[Diagnosis and treatment of Minimal Change Disease in adults-2023]. / Diagnostik und Therapie der Minimal Change Glomerulopathie beim Erwachsenen ­ 2023.

Minimal change disease is a glomerulopathy that clinically manifests as acute onset nephrotic syndrome. A diagnosis is made by renal biopsy, implying the absence of glomerular lesions on light microscopy but detection of extensive podocyte foot process effacement on electron miscroscopy. Considering the typically excellent response to immunosuppressive measures (especially to glucocorticoids), an autoimmune pathogenesis is assumed. Although general prognosis is overall beneficial, steroid-dependent, steroid-resistant and frequently-relapsing disease courses may complicate the management of these patients and necessitate the use of alternative immunosuppressive treatment strategies. Here, the Austrian Society of Nephrology (ÖGN) provides a consensus on how to best diagnose and manage adult patients with minimal change disease.

[Diagnosis and therapy of membranous nephropathy-2023]. / Diagnostik und Therapie der Membranösen Nephropathie ­ 2023.

Membranous nephropathy (MN) is an immune-complex glomerulonephritis and is one of the most common causes of nephrotic syndrome in adults and is also one of the autoimmune kidney diseases with the highest rate of spontaneous remission. The most common autoantigen (> 70% of cases) is directed against the phospholipase A2 receptor (PLA2-R) and, with its detection and clinical course, allows for excellent diagnostics as well as optimal therapy monitoring. Other autoantigens are constantly being published and will enable an autoantigen-based diagnostic and therapeutic algorithm for MN in the future. In the absence of spontaneous remission, a specific B­cell-directed therapy, especially with rituximab, is the initial therapy of choice. Calcineurininhibitors or cyclophosphamide should only be used if they are carefully indicated in the respective clinical context and if there are serious clinical consequences both from the nephrotic syndrome and from loss of kidney function. Since immune complexes within the kidney often require a long time to be degraded, proteinuria response can follow the immunological remission after many months. The therapy of MN represents the favorable case of a precision medicine-based therapy in nephrology, whereby new therapeutic B­cell antibodies for the rare but difficult forms of MN will find their way into clinical routine in the not-too-distant future.

[Diagnosis and treatment of focal-segmental glomerulosclerosis-2023]. / Diagnostik und Therapie der Fokal-Segmentalen Glomerulosklerose ­ 2023.

The histopathological term focal-segmental glomerulosclerosis comprises different pathogenic processes with the unifying features of a high proteinuria and the name-giving glomerular lesion pattern seen on light microscopy. A differentiation according to the underlying cause into primary, secondary and genetic forms is therefore of utmost importance. The pathogenesis of primary focal-segmental glomerulosclerosis remains unknown but, like minimal-change disease, an autoimmune-mediated process leading to podocyte damage is assumed. Consequently, the unifying term "podocytopathy" is increasingly being used for both entities. Supportive treatment measures to preserve kidney function are important in all subtypes. In contrast, immunosuppressive treatment is only indicated in primary focal-segmental glomerulosclerosis. Steroid-dependence, steroid-resistance and frequently relapsing disease often complicate disease management and necessitate alternative treatment strategies. Here, the Austrian Society of Nephrology (ÖGN) provides consensus recommendations on how to best diagnose and manage patients with focal-segmental glomerulosclerosis.

[Diagnostic and therapy of lupus nephritis - 2023]. / Diagnostik und Therapie der Lupusnephritis ­ 2023.

The manuscript summarizes the consensus of the Austrian Society of Nephrology on the diagnosis and therapy of lupusnephritis, which is built on existing studies and literature. We discuss in detail the immunosuppressive treatment in proliferative forms of lupusnephritis (III and IV ± V) and in pure lupusnephritis V with nephrotic-range proteinuria. Furthermore, the supportive medication in lupusnephritis is summarized in the consensus. The figures were designed to provide the reader a guidance through the therapeutical approach in lupusnephritis for the daily practice.

[Diagnosis and treatment of glomerular diseases with a membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (MPGN) pattern of injury]. / Diagnose und Therapie glomerulärer Erkrankungen mit einem membranoproliferativen Läsionsmuster (MPGN) ­ 2023.

Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (MPGN) represents a heterogeneous group of diseases. The common feature of a membranoproliferative lesion pattern in the kidney biopsy can either be idiopathic/primary or-much more frequently-have a secondary cause. The historical classification into MPGN types I to III has largely been abandoned and replaced in recent years by a pathogenesis-oriented classification. A MPGN with C1q, C3 and/or C4 deposits on light microscopy is referred to as immune complex GN (IC-GN), while a MPGN with dominant C3 deposits is referred to as C3 glomerulopathy (C3G). C3G is further divided into C3 glomerulonephritis (C3GN) and dense deposit disease (DDD). These diagnoses can only be made by a kidney biopsy. Possible causes of MPGN are chronic infections (especially hepatitis B and C, bacterial infections, infections with protozoa), autoimmune diseases (especially lupus, rheumatoid arthritis) or malignancies (especially hematological malignancies). Particularly in the case of C3G a comprehensive analysis of the complement system components is strongly recommended. Due to the low incidence and the heterogeneous clinical appearance of MPGN therapeutic decisions must be made individually; an optimal general therapy is unknown, except that supportive treatment as with other glomerular diseases should be optimized. In the case of a secondary MPGN it is generally recommended to treat the potential cause of the MPGN. If significant proteinuria persists and eGFR remains > 30 ml/min/1.73 m2, treatment with systemic steroids and mycophenolate mofetil is recommended. Other treatment options on an individual level after evaluation and discussion of the risk-benefit ratio with the patient are rituximab and eculizumab. Rapidly progressive MPGN should be treated like ANCA-associated vasculitis. The recurrence rates after kidney transplantation are very high and treatment is challenging.

[General recommendations for the management of glomerular diseases-2023]. / Allgemeine Empfehlungen für die Behandlung glomerulärer Erkrankungen ­ 2023.

Glomerular diseases are associated with extrarenal complications, such as thromboembolism, cardiovascular events and particularly infections. A thorough knowledge of the various immunosuppressants and their associated toxicity profile is therefore of great importance. While nephrologists usually have extensive experience with calcineurin inhibitors and antimetabolites, two other compounds (rituximab, in severe cases cyclophosphamide) are used comparatively infrequently and will be discussed in more detail. Moreover, practical recommendations for the prevention of thromboembolism in states of nephrosis and for the prophylaxis of Pneumcystic jirovecii pneumonia are provided.

[Diagnosis and therapy of granulomatosis with polyangiitis and microscopic polyangiitis-2023: consensus of the Austrian society of nephrology (ÖGN) and Austrian society of rheumatology (ÖGR)]. / Diagnose und Therapie der Granulomatose mit Polyangiitis und mikroskopische Polyangiitis ­ 2023: Konsens-Empfehlungen der Österreichischen Gesellschaften für Nephrologie (ÖGN) & Rheumatologie (ÖGR).

ANCA-associated vasculitides (AAV) are rare, complex systemic diseases that are often difficult to diagnose, because of unspecific clinical symptoms at presentation. However, the clinical course may be very dramatic and even life-threatening, necessitating prompt diagnosis and treatment.Therefore, it is important to increase disease awareness among physicians and support colleagues who are not confronted with these rare diseases on a regular basis. Here, the Austrian Society of Nephrology (ÖGN) and the Austrian Society of Rheumatology (ÖGR) provide a joint consensus on how to best diagnose and manage patients with granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA) and microscopic polyangiitis (MPA).

COVID-19 outcomes in patients with a history of immune-mediated glomerular diseases.

Introduction: Patients with immune-mediated glomerular diseases are considered at high risk for severe COVID-19 outcomes. However, conclusive evidence for this patient population is scarce. Methods: We created a global registry and retrospectively collected clinical data of patients with COVID-19 and a previously diagnosed immune-mediated glomerular disease to characterize specific risk factors for severe COVID-19 outcomes. Results: Fifty-nine patients with a history of immune-mediated glomerular diseases were diagnosed with COVID-19 between 01.03.2020 and 31.08.2021. Over a mean follow-up period of 24.79 ± 18.89 days, ten patients (16.9%) developed acute kidney injury. Overall, 44.1% of patients were managed in an outpatient setting and therefore considered as having "non-severe" COVID-19, while 55.9% of patients had severe COVID-19 requiring hospitalization including worse outcomes. Comparing both groups, patients with severe COVID-19 were significantly older (53.55 ± 17.91 versus 39.77 ± 14.95 years, p = .003), had lower serum albumin levels at presentation (3.00 ± 0.80 g/dL versus 3.99 ± 0.68 g/dL, p = .016) and had a higher risk of developing acute kidney injury (27% versus 4%, p = .018). Male sex (p <.001) and ongoing intake of corticosteroids at presentation (p = .047) were also significantly associated with severe COVID-19 outcomes, while the overall use of ongoing immunosuppressive agents and glomerular disease remission status showed no significant association with the severity of COVID-19 (p = .430 and p = .326, respectively). Conclusion: Older age, male sex, ongoing intake of corticosteroids and lower serum albumin levels at presentation were identified as risk factors for severe COVID-19 outcomes in patients with a history of various immune-mediated glomerular diseases.

Preventing infections in immunocompromised patients with kidney diseases: vaccines and antimicrobial prophylaxis.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic revealed that our understanding of infectious complications and strategies to mitigate severe infections in patients with glomerular diseases is limited. Beyond COVID-19, there are several infections that specifically impact care of patients receiving immunosuppressive measures. This review will provide an overview of six different infectious complications frequently encountered in patients with glomerular diseases, and will focus on recent achievements in terms of vaccine developments and understanding of the use of specific antimicrobial prophylaxis. These include influenza virus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, reactivation of a chronic or past infection with hepatitis B virus in cases receiving B-cell depletion, reactivation of cytomegalovirus, and cases of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in patients with anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis. Varicella zoster virus infections are particularly frequent in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and an inactivated vaccine is available to use as an alternative to the attenuated vaccine in patients receiving immunosuppressants. As with COVID-19 vaccines, vaccine responses are generally impaired in older patients, and after recent administration of B-cell depleting agents, and high doses of mycophenolate mofetil and other immunosuppressants. Strategies to curb infectious complications are manifold and will be outlined in this review.

Chronic kidney disease is more prevalent among women but more men than women are under nephrological care : Analysis from six outpatient clinics in Austria 2019.

BACKGROUND: A discrepancy between sex-specific treatment of kidney failure by dialysis (higher in men) and the prevalence of chronic kidney disease in the general population (higher in women) has been reported internationally, but the prevalence by sex has not been described for Austria. Sex disparity among nephrology outpatients has not been studied. METHODS: We employed two formulae (2009 CKD-EPI suppressing the race factor, and race-free 2021 CKD-EPI) to estimate the sex distribution of CKD in Austrian primary care, based on creatinine measurements recorded in a medical sample of 39,800 patients from general practitioners' offices (1989-2008). Further, we collected information from all clinic appointments scheduled at nephrology departments of 6 Austrian hospitals (Wien, Linz, Wels, St. Pölten, Villach, Innsbruck) during 2019 and calculated visit frequencies by sex. RESULTS: Using the 2009 CKD-EPI formula, the prevalence of CKD in stages G3-G5 (estimated glomerular filtration rate < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2) was 16.4% among women and 8.5% among men aged > 18 years who had attended general practitioners' offices in Austria between 1989 and 2008 and had at least one creatinine measurement performed. Using the 2021 CKD-EPI formula, the respective CKD prevalence was 12.3% among women and 6.1% among men. In 2019, 45% of all outpatients at 6 participating nephrology departments were women. The median of nephrology clinic visits in 2019 was two (per year) for both sexes. CONCLUSION: CKD is more prevalent among Austrian women than men. Men are more prevalent in nephrology outpatient services. Research into causes of this sex disparity is urgently needed.

Acute water intoxication in an adult man: 'dental hyponatraemia' revisited.

The differential diagnosis of hyponatraemia is notoriously wide. However, only a minority is acute, ie develops in less than 48 hours. We describe an unusual cause of water intoxication due to toothache. A 30-year-old man with no medical history of note presented in an acute confusional state. Laboratory results disclosed profound hyponatraemia. Urinary indices were consistent with overdrinking, but in the absence of a reliable history, other aetiologies had to be excluded. This case highlights the benefit of a structured approach in the assessment of electrolyte disturbances.