Memory-electroluminescence for multiple action-potentials combination in bio-inspired afferent nerves.

The development of optoelectronics mimicking the functions of the biological nervous system is important to artificial intelligence. This work demonstrates an optoelectronic, artificial, afferent-nerve strategy based on memory-electroluminescence spikes, which can realize multiple action-potentials combination through a single optical channel. The memory-electroluminescence spikes have diverse morphologies due to their history-dependent characteristics and can be used to encode distributed sensor signals. As the key to successful functioning of the optoelectronic, artificial afferent nerve, a driving mode for light-emitting diodes, namely, the non-carrier injection mode, is proposed, allowing it to drive nanoscale light-emitting diodes to generate a memory-electroluminescence spikes that has multiple sub-peaks. Moreover, multiplexing of the spikes can be obtained by using optical signals with different wavelengths, allowing for a large signal bandwidth, and the multiple action-potentials transmission process in afferent nerves can be demonstrated. Finally, sensor-position recognition with the bio-inspired afferent nerve is developed and shown to have a high recognition accuracy of 98.88%. This work demonstrates a strategy for mimicking biological afferent nerves and offers insights into the construction of artificial perception systems.

Silver Nanowire Networks with Moisture-Enhanced Learning Ability.

The human brain possesses a remarkable ability to memorize information with the assistance of a specific external environment. Therefore, mimicking the human brain's environment-enhanced learning abilities in artificial electronic devices is essential but remains a considerable challenge. Here, a network of Ag nanowires with a moisture-enhanced learning ability, which can mimic long-term potentiation (LTP) synaptic plasticity at an ultralow operating voltage as low as 0.01 V, is presented. To realize a moisture-enhanced learning ability and to adjust the aggregations of Ag ions, we introduced a thin polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) coating layer with moisture-sensitive properties to the surfaces of the Ag nanowires of Ag ions. That Ag nanowire network was shown to exhibit, in response to the humidity of its operating environment, different learning speeds during the LTP process. In high-humidity environments, the synaptic plasticity was significantly strengthened with a higher learning speed compared with that in relatively low-humidity environments. Based on experimental and simulation results, we attribute this enhancement to the higher electric mobility of the Ag ions in the water-absorbed PVP layer. Finally, we demonstrated by simulation that the moisture-enhanced synaptic plasticity enabled the device to adjust connection weights and delivery modes based on various input patterns. The recognition rate of a handwritten data set reached 94.5% with fewer epochs in a high-humidity environment. This work shows the feasibility of building our electronic device to achieve artificial adaptive learning abilities.

Electron Oscillation-Induced Splitting Electroluminescence from Nano-LEDs for Device-Level Encryption.

Data security is a major concern in digital age, which generally relies on algorithm-based mathematical encryption. Recently, encryption techniques based on physical principles are emerging and being developed, leading to the new generation of encryption moving from mathematics to the intersection of mathematics and physics. Here, device-level encryption with ideal security is ingeniously achieved using modulation of the electron-hole radiative recombination in a GaN-light-emitting diode (LED). When a nano-LED is driven in the non-carrier injection mode, the oscillation of confined electrons can split what should be a single light pulse into multiple pulses. The morphology (amplitude, shape, and pulse number) of those history-dependent multiple pulses that act as carriers for transmitted digital information depends highly on the parameters of the driving signals, which makes those signals mathematically uncrackable and can increase the volume and security of transmitted information. Moreover, a hardware and software platform are designed to demonstrate the encrypted data transmission based on the device-level encryption method, enabling recognition of the entire ASCII code table. The device-level encryption based on splitting electroluminescence provides an encryption method during the conversion process of digital signals to optical signals and can improve the security of LED-based communication.

High sensitivity and wide response range artificial synapse based on polyimide with embedded graphene quantum dots.

Artificial electronic synapses are commonly used to simulate biological synapses to realize various learning functions, regarded as one of the key technologies in the next generation of neurological computation. This work used a simple spin coating technique to fabricate polyimide (PI):graphene quantum dots(GQDs) memristor structure. As a result, the devices exhibit remarkably stable exponentially decaying postsynaptic suppression current over time, as interpreted in the spike-timing-dependent plasticity phenomenon. Furthermore, with the increase of the applied electrical signal over time, the conductance of the electrical synapse gradually changes, and the electronic synapse also shows plasticity dependence on the amplitude and frequency of the pulse applied. In particular, the devices with the structure of Ag/PI:GQDs/ITO prepared in this study can produce a stable response to the stimulation of electrical signals between millivolt to volt, showing not only high sensitivity but also a wide range of "feelings", which makes the electronic synapses take a step forwards to emulate biological synapses. Meanwhile, the electronic conduction mechanisms of the device are also studied and expounded in detail. The findings in this work lay a foundation for developing brain-like neuromorphic modeling in artificial intelligence.

Omnidirectional Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Wide-Speed-Range Wind Energy Harvesting.

The environmentally friendly harvesting of wind energy is an effective technique for achieving carbon neutrality and a green economy. In this work, a core-shell triboelectric nanogenerator (CS-TENG) for harvesting wind energy is demonstrated and the device structure parameters are optimized. The core-shell structure enables the CS-TENG to respond sensitively to wind from any direction and generate electrical output on the basis of the vertical contact-separation mode. A single device can generate a maximum power density of 0.14 W/m3 and can power 124 light-emitting diodes. In addition, wind energy can be harvested even at a wind speed as low as 2.3 m/s by paralleling CS-TENGs of different sizes. Finally, a self-powered water quality testing system that uses the CS-TENG as its power supply is built. The CS-TENG exhibits the advantages of a simple structure, environmentally friendly materials, low cost, and simple fabrication process. These features are of considerable significance for the development of green energy harvesting devices.

In-Well Ionization from Monolayer Quantum Dots for Non-Carrier-Injection Electroluminescence.

Quantum dot (QD) light-emitting devices operating in non-carrier-injection (NCI) mode have attracted intense interest. Revealing the source of carriers that support the periodic electroluminescence is important because there is no injection of carriers from the external electrode. Electrons/holes generated by well-to-well multiple ionization in adjacent QDs are generally recognized as the carrier source for electroluminescence, and the stacked QD layers are necessary. In this work, NCI electroluminescence (NCI-EL) from monolayer QDs is successfully demonstrated, which cannot be properly explained by the previously proposed mechanism of multiple ionization. A working mechanism related to periodic in-well ionization is proposed, in which electrons tunnel directly from the valence band of QDs to the conduction band to form free electrons and holes. The effects of driving voltage amplitude, frequency, and QD size on the NCI-EL performance are investigated. Finite element simulation is used to clarify the ionization process. We believe this work can extend the working mechanism model of NCI-EL from QDs and provide guidance for promoting QD-based light-emitting device performance.

Low-voltage driving high-resistance liquid crystal micro-lens with electrically tunable depth of field for the light field imaging system.

Light field imaging (LFI) based on Liquid crystal microlens array (LC MLAs) are emerging as a significant area for 3D imaging technology in the field of upcoming Internet of things and artificial intelligence era. However, in scenes of LFI through conventional MLAs, such as biological imaging and medicine imaging, the quality of imaging reconstruction will be severely reduced due to the limited depth of field. Here, we are proposed a low-voltage driving LC MLAs with electrically tunable depth of field (DOF) for the LFI system. An aluminum-doped zinc oxide (AZO) film was deposited on the top of the hole-patterned driven-electrode arrays and used as a high resistance (Hi-R) layer, a uniform gradient electric field was obtained across the sandwiched LC cell. Experimental results confirm that the proposed LC MLAs possess high-quality interference rings and tunable focal length at a lower working voltage. In addition, the focal lengths are tunable from 3.93 to 2.62 mm and the DOF are adjustable from 15.60 to 1.23 mm. The experiments demonstrated that the LFI system based on the proposed structure can clearly capture 3D information of the insets with enlarged depths by changing the working voltage and driving frequency, which indicates that the tunable DOF LC MLAs have a potential application prospects for the biological and medical imaging.

Theoretical Study of LED Operating in Noncarrier Injection Mode.

Non-carrier injection (NCI) mode is an emerging driving mode for light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with numerous advantages. Revealing the relationship between the current and the applied alternating voltage in mathematical formulas is of great significance for understanding the working mechanism of NCI-LEDs and improving device performance. In this work, a theoretical model of the relationship between NCI-LED current and time-varying voltage is constructed. Based on the theoretical model, the real-time current is derived, which is consistent with the experimental results. Key parameters that can improve device performance are discussed, including voltage amplitude, frequency, equivalent capacitance, and LED reverse current. The theory presented here can serve as an important guidance for the rational design of the NCI-LEDs.

Working Mechanisms of Nanoscale Light-Emitting Diodes Operating in Non-Electrical Contact and Non-Carrier Injection Mode: Modeling and Simulation.

Non-electrical contact and non-carrier injection (NEC&NCI) mode is an emerging driving mode for nanoscale light-emitting diodes (LEDs), aiming for applications in nano-pixel light-emitting displays (NLEDs). However, the working mechanism of nano-LED operating in NEC&NCI mode is not clear yet. In particular, the questions comes down to how the inherent holes and electrons in the LED can support sufficient radiation recombination, which lacks a direct physical picture. In this work, a finite element simulation was used to study the working process of the nano-LED operating in the NEC&NCI mode to explore the working mechanisms. The energy band variation, carrier concentration redistribution, emission rate, emission spectrum, and current-voltage characteristics are studied. Moreover, the effect of the thickness of insulating layer that plays a key role on device performance is demonstrated. We believe this work can provide simulation guidance for a follow-up study of NEC&NCI-LED.

Hybrid Device of Blue GaN Light-Emitting Diodes and Organic Light-Emitting Diodes with Color Tunability for Smart Lighting Sources.

A lighting device with a wide color-tunable range is still a challenge for lighting based on either organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) or inorganic LEDs. In this work, we first proposed a novel hybrid device of organic LEDs and inorganic blue GaN LEDs to achieve full white and other colors. Organic LEDs were stacked with green and red emissive layers and connected with blue GaN LEDs in parallel but in opposite polarity voltage. Under the alternate-current (AC) driving, the hybrid structure can be controlled independently by applying timing variable opposite voltages to emit the light from either blue LEDs or the stacked OLEDs for forming mixed colors. The hybrid device can generate white light, varying in a wide range by changing the amplitude and duty ratio (DR) of AC-driving signals, from cold white to standard white and to warm white (3668-11 833 K). When an AC voltage of (4.80 V, -2.45 V) was applied, the device has a high color gamut of 95.24% National Television System Committee (NTSC) and a high color rendering index (R a) of 92.4%. The novel hybrid device with the blue LED and OLED in opposite polarity exhibits potential applications in smart solid-state lighting, display, and light communication.

Atomic-Scale Mechanism of Spontaneous Polarity Inversion in AlN on Nonpolar Sapphire Substrate Grown by MOCVD.

The performance of nitride devices is strongly affected by their polarity. Understanding the polarity determination and evolution mechanism of polar wurtzite nitrides on nonpolar substrates is therefore critically important. This work confirms that the polarity of AlN on sapphire prepared by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition is not inherited from the nitrides/sapphire interface as widely accepted, instead, experiences a spontaneous polarity inversion during the growth. It is found that at the initial growth stage, the interface favors the nitrogen-polarity, rather than the widely accepted metal-polarity or randomly coexisting. However, the polarity subsequently converts into the metal-polar situation, at first locally then expanding into the whole area, driven by the anisotropy of surface energies, which results in universally existing inherent inverse grain boundaries. Furthermore, vertical two-dimensional electron accumulation originating from the lattice symmetry breaking at the inverse grain boundary is first revealed. This work identifies another cause of high-density defects in nitride epilayers, besides lattice mismatch induced dislocations. These findings also offer new insights into atomic structure and determination mechanism of polarity in nitrides, providing clues for its manipulation toward the novel hetero-polarity devices.

Design and fabrication of hybrid MLAs/gratings for the enhancement of light extraction efficiency and distribution uniformity of OLEDs.

Extracting light from organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) and improving the angular distribution are essential for their commercial applications in illumination and displays. In this work, hybrid microlens arrays (MLAs) and gratings with periods and depths in the scale of submicron have been designed and incorporated on the lighting surface of OLEDs for simultaneous enhancement of light outcoupling efficiency and angular distribution improvement. It is found that the augmentation of light extraction efficiency is mainly attributed to the MLAs, while the gratings can improve the viewing angle by increasing the angular distribution uniformity. A novel approach was proposed by combining photoresist thermal reflow, soft-lithography and plasma treatments on polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) surfaces synergistically to realize gratings on the wavy surface of MLAs. It has been proved that with the hybrid MLAs/gratings, the external quantum efficiency (EQE) of the OLED can reach up to 22.8%, which increased by 24% compared to that of bare OLED. Moreover, the OLED with the hybrid MLAs/gratings showed an obvious lateral enhancement at wider viewing angle.

Light-Emitting Memristors for Optoelectronic Artificial Efferent Nerve.

The central nervous system sends a neural impulse through an efferent nerve system toward muscles to drive movement. In an electronically artificial neural system, the electronic neural devices and interconnections prevent achieving highly connected and long-distance artificial impulse transmission and exhibit a narrow bandwidth. Here we design and demonstrate light-emitting memristors (LEMs) for the realization of an optoelectronic artificial efferent nerve, in which the LEM combines the functions of a light receiver, a light emitter, and an optoelectronic synapse in a single device. The optical signal from the pre-LEM (presynaptic membrane) acts as the input signal for the post-LEM (postsynaptic membrane), leading to one-to-many transmission, dynamic adjustable transmission, and light-trained synaptic plasticity, thus removing the physical limitation in artificially electronic neural systems. Furthermore, we construct an optoelectronic artificial efferent nerve with LEMs to control manipulators intelligently. These results promote the construction of an artificial optoelectronic nerve for further development of sensorimotor functionalities.

Spontaneous Formation of Random Wrinkles by Atomic Layer Infiltration for Anticounterfeiting.

Continuous developments of innovative anticounterfeiting strategies are vital to restrain the fast-growing counterfeit markets. Physical unclonable function (PUF)-based taggants allow for a practical solution to provide irreproducible codes for strong authentication. Herein, an advanced anticounterfeiting strategy with multiple security levels was successfully developed using screen printing and atomic layer infiltration (ALI) techniques. Macroscale poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) patterns were fabricated for primary verification. Spontaneous formation of random wrinkles with size in the micrometer scale was achieved on the top surface of screen-printed PDMS patterns due to the anisotropic relief and redistribution of extra compressive stress after Al2O3 infiltration, which can be used for senior authentication by image identification using the artificial intelligence (AI) technique. Furthermore, the complexity and security level of a code, which are proportional to the minutia density, can be adjusted by the morphology of the wrinkles in terms of amplitude and wavelength via the degree of Al2O3 permeation depending on ALI conditions. These spontaneously formed random wrinkles were demonstrated for validation and decoding with AI, exhibiting the merits of being unclonable, nondestructive, universally adaptable, environmentally stable, and mass-producible, and sufficiently adaptable for an industry-suitable authentication strategy.

Emerging Nanopixel Light-Emitting Displays: Significance, Challenges, and Prospects.

The requirement for increased resolution has created the concept of displays with nanoscale pixels; that is, each subpixel consists of multiple or even a single nanolight source, which is considered the ultimate light source for light field, near-eye, and implantable displays. However, related research is still at an early stage, and further insights into this future display concept should be provided. In this Perspective, we provide our proposed term for this future display, namely, nanopixel light-emitting display (NLED). We present an overview of nanolight-emitting diodes, which are considered the core component of NLEDs. Then, a roadmap to realize NLEDs from the view of material design is provided. Finally, we introduce our proposed operation mode (nonelectrical contact and noncarrier injection mode) for NLEDs and recommend possible nanopixel-level drive approaches. We hope that this Perspective will be helpful in designing innovative display technologies.

Bio-inspired smart electronic-skin based on inorganic perovskite nanoplates for application in photomemories and mechanoreceptors.

The development of artificial skin, such as electronic skin, is critical to emerging artificial intelligence systems. Electronic skins reported to date are mechanically flexible, and can detect various stimuli, but lack the ability to regulate themselves and learn information from the outside world. The integration of bio-inspired multifunction in a single electronic platform is critical to the development of e-skin systems. Here, we demonstrate a self-powered, light-stimulated, smart e-skin based on a photosensitive perovskite material. The electronic skin implements the functions of both tactile sensing and photoelectric neural computing. The strategy for developing such a material system and architecture of the electronic skin meets the requirement of multifunctional smart human-machine interfaces and has promising potential for application in future artificial intelligence systems.

Large-scale microlens arrays on flexible substrate with improved numerical aperture for curved integral imaging 3D display.

Curved integral imaging 3D display could provide enhanced 3D sense of immersion and wider viewing angle, and is gaining increasing interest among discerning users. In this work, large scale microlens arrays (MLAs) on flexible PMMA substrate were achieved based on screen printing method. Meanwhile, an inverted reflowing configuration as well as optimization of UV resin's viscosity and substrate's surface wettability were implemented to improved the numerical aperture (NA) of microlenses. The results showed that the NA values of MLAs could be increased effectively by adopting inverted reflowing manner with appropriate reflowing time. With decreasing the substrate's wettability, the NA values could be increased from 0.036 to 0.096, when the UV resin contact angles increased from 60.1° to 88.7°. For demonstration, the fabricated MLAs was combined to a curved 2D monitor to realize a 31-inch curved integral imaging 3D display system, exhibiting wider viewing angle than flat integral imaging 3D display system.

Electroluminescence from µLED without external charge injection.

Stable electroluminescence from micro-pixelated light-emitting diode (µLED) occurs when electrons and holes are continuously injected from external electrodes. Different from the general recognition, in this work, µLED works in an operation mode, namely, non-electrical contact and non-carrier injection mode, and can be 'wirelessly' lit up without external charge injection, which is different from the general recognition. Inherent holes and electrons in µLEDs can provide sufficient carriers for radiative recombination under alternating-current electric field. A possible model related to the diffusion of majority carrier and the drift of minority carrier in µLED was proposed, which is further confirmed by the employment of a 'carrier pump'. Finally, the intrinsic characteristics of the device-in-capacitor, namely, self-protection against electrical breakdown, were discussed. This work demonstrates a new device configuration and an alternative operating mode for µLED and provides a research manner to obtain advanced µLED-based technology.

Highly Stable and Flexible Memristive Devices Based on Polyvinylpyrrolidone: WS2 Quantum Dots.

Tungsten disulfide (WS2) quantum dots (QDs) embedded in polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) based flexible memristive devices were prepared, and those devices exhibited typical bistable electrical switching and remarkable nonvolatile memristive behaviors. Maximum electricity ON/OFF ratio obtained from the current-voltage (I-V) curves of the device is close to 104. The set voltage of the device is +0.7 V, which effectively reduced the energy consumption. The retention times extracted from data for the devices were as large as 1 × 104 s, which points to these devices having nonvolatile characteristics. Moreover, the highly flexible characteristics of the devices were demonstrated by bending the devices. The carrier transport mechanisms were explained by fitting the I-V curves, and possible operating mechanisms of the devices can be described based on the electron trapping and detrapping processes. WS2 QDs uniformly dispersed in pure transparent N, N-Dimethylformamide (DMF) were obtained by using ultrasonication and a hydrothermal process in this work.

Binary Electronic Synapses for Integrating Digital and Neuromorphic Computation in a Single Physical Platform.

As a promising advanced computation technology, the integration of digital computation with neuromorphic computation into a single physical platform holds the advantage of a precise, deterministic, fast data process as well as the advantage of a flexible, paralleled, fault-tolerant data process. Even though two-terminal memristive devices have been respectively proved as leading electronic elements for digital computation and neuromorphic computation, it is difficult to steadily maintain both sudden-state-change and gradual-state-change in a single device due to the entirely different operating mechanisms. In this work, we developed a digital-analog compatible memristive device, namely, binary electronic synapse, through realizing controllable cation drift in a memristive layer. The devices feature nonvolatile binary memory as well as artificial neuromorphic plasticity with high operation endurance. With strong nonlinearity in switching dynamics, binary switching, neuromorphic plasticity, two-dimension information store, and trainable memory can be implemented by a single device.