High-performance liquid chromatographic method for the determination of an HIV-1 non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (L-696,229) in plasma samples from animals.

A sensitive high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) method was developed and validated to separate and quantitate the levels of L-696,229 (I), a novel human immunodeficiency virus type I non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor, and its hydroxy metabolites (II and III) in plasma samples. The procedure involves the addition of a constant known quantity of internal standard to the biological specimen followed by extraction of the compounds of interest into methyl tert.-butyl ether. The organic phase is evaporated to dryness under a gentle stream of nitrogen. The residue is then dissolved in methanol and water and injected onto a reversed-phase HPLC column. A gradient HPLC method is used to elute the compounds which are monitored using UV detection at 319 nm. Absolute calibration factors (from the standard curve) were calculated by analyzing standards, and these factors were used to determine the concentration of drug (I) and its hydroxy metabolites (II and III) in the samples using the internal standard method. The method was linear using a standard concentration range of 50 to 20,000 ng/ml. The limit of quantitation was 50 ng/ml using 200 microliters plasma. The procedure was utilized to monitor plasma levels of I, II and III in acute and chronic toxicity studies in several animal species.

Toxicokinetic analysis of losartan during gestation and lactation in the rat.

Previous developmental and reproductive toxicity studies in rats with losartan, a potent AT1-selective angiotensin II (AII) receptor antagonist, correlated maternal treatment during gestation day (GD) 15-20 with irreversible renal abnormalities in the F1 generation (Spence et al., '95a,b). Continued treatment through lactation was also associated with increases in pup mortality and decreases in pup body weights that persisted through weaning. The studies presented here were undertaken to quantify fetal and neonatal exposure to losartan when administered to the dam by oral gavage during early gestation, late gestation, and lactation. Following daily oral dosing of 135 mg/kg/day on GD6-15, fetal drug levels were negligible. However, losartan and its active metabolite, EXP3174 (L-158,641) were readily detectable in fetal plasma on GD 20 (estimated AUC values, 50.70 and 167.70 micrograms/hr/ml, respectively) and maternal milk during lactation (1.61 and 1.67 micrograms/ml, respectively). These studies suggest that the relative increased sensitivity of the fetus as compared to the neonate for losartan-induced renal lesions is related to the degree of exposure which is dependent on the time of administration (early gestation vs. late gestation/lactation) and the route of exposure (transplacental or through the milk). Furthermore, the maximum exposure to losartan and EXP3174 correlates with the ontogeny of the renin angiotensin system on approximately GD 17 and the critical period for losartan-induced renal lesions (GD15-20). The data support the hypothesis that the observed adverse fetal and neonatal effects are pharmacologically mediated, presumably through the lack of AT1 receptor stimulation.

Gender differences in toxicokinetics, liver metabolism, and plasma esterase activity: observations from a chronic (27-week) toxicity study of enalapril/diltiazem combinations in rats.

Diltiazem (DTZ), a calcium channel blocker, and enalapril (EN), an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, are being developed as combination therapy for cardiovascular disease. A toxicokinetic evaluation of EN and DTZ drug levels during a 27-week toxicity study used an enzyme assay to measure EN and an HPLC assay to measure DTZ, deacetylated DTZ (DAD), and desmethyl DTZ (DMD). EN exposure during drug week 7 was proportional to dose and without dispositional gender differences. However, gender differences in DTZ and metabolite plasma profiles were dramatic. For example, female DTZ Cmax values were roughly 15-20% of males; DAD plasma Cmax values were roughly 3- to 10-fold greater; and the desmethyl metabolite, DMD, was roughly 2- to 10-fold lower. Sodium fluoride added to samples taken during drug week 26 to inhibit plasma esterase activity did not alter DTZ plasma profiles, suggesting that gender differences in DTZ and metabolite plasma levels were not caused by sample degradation. Liver esterase activity in treated rats was significantly greater (p > 0.05) than controls, whereas plasma activity was not affected. Female plasma and liver esterase activities were roughly 3- and 5-fold greater than males (p < 0.002), respectively, which may explain the low DTZ and high DAD plasma levels we measured. These results indicate that liver and plasma esterase activity is much greater in female rats and may be responsible for the differences in drug and metabolite plasma profiles relative to males. In addition, chronic coadministration of EN/DTZ may modestly increase liver esterase activity.

Enantioselective induction of peroxisomal proliferation in CD-1 mice by leukotriene antagonists.

The effects of a racemic leukotriene antagonist (MK-0571) and its component enantiomers (L-668,018 and L-668,019) on hepatic peroxisome proliferation were examined in mice, rats, and rhesus monkeys. Administration of racemic MK-0571 to mice resulted in increased liver weights, increased peroxisomal volume density, and a pleiotropic induction of characteristic peroxisomal and nonperoxisomal enzyme activities associated with peroxisomal proliferation. When the individual enantiomers of MK-0571 were administered to mice, a pronounced enantioselective induction of peroxisome proliferation was observed. Toxicokinetic studies showed that the levels of each enantiomer in the liver or plasma after separate administration were similar. Thus, the enantioselectivity in the induction of peroxisome proliferation could not be explained on the basis of pharmacokinetic differences between the enantiomers. The hepatic peroxisomal response of the rat to MK-0571 was greatly attenuated compared to the mouse. As has been seen with other peroxisome-proliferating agents, MK-0571 had no effect on either peroxisomal volume density or peroxisomal enzyme activity in monkeys. Due to the high degree of enantiomeric discrimination toward the induction of peroxisomal proliferation by these enantiomers, compounds of this type may prove useful as probes to examine the mechanisms by which peroxisomal proliferating agents induce their effects.

Thiobenzamide-induced hepatotoxicity: effects of substituents and route of administration on the nature and extent of liver injury.

Differences in the nature and extent of hepatic injury were examined after administration of para-substituted thiobenzamides to rats. In accordance with previous studies, the extent of hepatotoxicity varied with the electron-donating ability of the substituent. There was also a good correlation between the extent of hepatic necrosis and the amount of substituted thiobenzamide sulfoxide found in the plasma after intraperitoneal dosing. The nature of the hepatic lesion, characterized as a combination of hepatic necrosis, ballooning degeneration, and biliary dysfunction, varied qualitatively with each thiobenzamide analog. When the hepatotoxicity of thiobenzamide was compared after either intraperitoneal or oral dosing, differences in the extent of hepatic necrosis, ballooning degeneration, transaminase elevation, and biliary dysfunction were observed. Intraperitoneal dosing with thiobenzamide gave less severe necrosis and more pronounced elevations in bile acids, while oral dosing led to more severe necrosis along with impaired biliary function. The route of administration was shown to dramatically affect the pharmacokinetics of thiobenzamide and thiobenzamide sulfoxide. Intraperitoneal administration of thiobenzamide gave high plasma and liver levels of both thiobenzamide and thiobenzamide sulfoxide, whereas oral administration gave slightly lower levels of the sulfoxide but much lower levels of thiobenzamide. The reason for greater hepatic necrosis after oral administration may be due to a greater ability to further metabolize the sulfoxide to a reactive metabolite in the absence of high levels of thiobenzamide.

High-performance liquid chromatographic method for the determination of a novel leukotriene D4 antagonist (MK-0571) in biological specimens.

A rapid, sensitive and selective liquid chromatographic procedure was developed to quantitate the levels of a novel leukotriene D4 antagonist, MK-0571 (I), in biological samples. The method involves the addition of an internal standard, an analogue of I, and methanol to the biological matrix. Following centrifugation the supernatant is chromatographed isocratically on a C18 reversed-phase column and the acids are detected with an ultraviolet detector. The sensitivity of the method is such that 50 ng of drug can be quantitated per aliquot of sample. Assays were linear over a 0.06-40.0 micrograms range and exhibited a recovery of 100.5 +/- 7.0% (mean +/- S.D.) over this range. This procedure was utilized to monitor plasma, liver and urinary levels of I in chronic and acute toxicity studies in several animal species.

Stereospecific HPLC method for the quantitation of the enantiomers of MK-0571, a potent leukotriene D4 receptor antagonist, in biological specimens.

A stereospecific HPLC bioanalytical method was developed for quantitation of the enantiomers of MK-0571, a leukotriene D4 receptor antagonist. The procedure involves the addition of an internal standard analog to the biological matrix followed by extraction of the free acids into ethyl acetate. The acids are subsequently reacted with the homochiral reagent, (+)-(R)-alpha-(1-naphthyl)ethylamine (NEA) to form diastereomers. Following removal of excess reagent and side products by a dilute acid wash, the NEA-MK-0571 diastereomers are separated on a phenyl urea chiral column using a mobile phase containing hexane, isopropanol, and acetonitrile and are detected with a fluorescence detector. The sensitivity of the method is such that 50 ng of each enantiomer can be quantitated. In the 0.05 to 10 micrograms range the recoveries of the enantiomers of MK-0571 from plasma were 100.4 +/- 7.9% and 100.0 +/- 7.2%. NMR and mass spectral data confirmed the structure of the derivative. The method has been utilized in drug safety evaluation studies to demonstrate enantioselectivity in disposition of the enantiomers of MK-0571 in rats and monkeys but not in mice.

Embryotoxicity studies of norfloxacin in cynomolgus monkeys: I. Teratology studies and norfloxacin plasma concentration in pregnant and nonpregnant monkeys.

Norfloxacin, a new orally active antibiotic, was investigated in cynomolgus monkeys for potential developmental toxicity. Fifty-seven monkeys were administered a control vehicle or norfloxacin by nasogastric gavage during the major period of organogenesis on gestational days (GD) 21 through 50 at doses of 0, 50, 100, 150, or 200/300 mg/kg/day. There was no evidence of teratogenicity at any dose level. Maternotoxicity and a significant increase in embryolethality occurred following doses of 200/300 mg/kg/day. The maternotoxicity was not expected based on range-finding studies in nonpregnant female monkeys, which showed no signs of toxicity in doses up to 500 mg/kg/day. Additional studies were conducted to determine if norfloxacin caused similar toxicity later in gestation. Forty-six pregnant monkeys were dosed with a control vehicle or 200 mg/kg/day norfloxacin for one of three 10-day periods on GD 36-45, 71-80, or 111-120. There were no maternotoxic, embryotoxic, or fetotoxic effects observed. Plasma concentrations of norfloxacin in five cynomolgus monkeys following 50 and 200 mg/kg oral doses were not dose-proportionate. However, at a given dose, administered in cross-over fashion, plasma concentrations of norfloxacin were higher in nonpregnant females (approximately 20-40%) than during pregnancy when the same subject was compared. At the no-observed-effect dose for maternal and embryotoxicity (50 mg/kg), peak plasma concentrations of norfloxacin in pregnant cynomolgus monkeys are approximately threefold higher than those observed in human volunteers receiving norfloxacin at the maximum recommended therapeutic dose of 400 mg (5.7 mg/kg based on 70 kg body weight) twice per day.

Disposition of radiolabeled imipenem and cilastatin in normal human volunteers.

In the first of two successive studies, four healthy male subjects received 500 mg of 14C-labeled imipenem alone and together with 500 mg of unlabeled cilastatin sodium. In the second study, the same subjects were given 250 mg of 14C-labeled cilastatin sodium alone and together with 250 and 1,000 mg of cold imipenem. Concentrations of imipenem and cilastatin in plasma, urine, and feces were assayed by high-pressure liquid chromatography and radiometry. Plasma concentrations of imipenem assayed radiometrically were higher than those measured by high-pressure liquid chromatography. In one subject studied at the end of drug administration, the open lactam metabolite of imipenem represented 9% of the radioactivity. Plasma levels of cilastatin determined by high-pressure liquid chromatography and radiometry were virtually identical. Urinary recovery of imipenem varied between 12 and 42% of the dose when that drug was given alone but increased to between 64 and 75% when administered with cilastatin sodium at a 1:1 ratio. Almost all radioactivity of imipenem was recovered in the urine within 96 h after drug administration. The open lactam metabolite, resulting from the metabolism of imipenem in the kidneys by a dipeptidase, dehydropeptidase-I, represented 80 to 90% of the effluent radioactivity when imipenem was given alone and about 20% when cilastatin sodium was coadministered. Renal excretion of cilastatin followed closely that of imipenem. Almost all of the administered radioactivity was recovered in 24 h, and about 75% of the dose was recovered as unchanged cilastatin within 6 h. The N-acetyl metabolite of cilastatin was found to represent about 12% of the total radioactivity.

A super active cyclic hexapeptide analog of somatostatin.

The cyclic hexapeptide, cyclo (Pro-Phe-D-Trp-Lys-Thr-Phe), I, has been shown to have the biological properties of somatostatin. We now report structure-activity studies which optimize the potency of this cyclic hexapeptide series with the synthesis of cyclo (N-Me-Ala-Tyr-D-Trp-Lys-Val-Phe), II, which is 50-100 times more potent than somatostatin for the inhibition of insulin, glucagon and growth hormone release. The hydroxyl group of tyrosine is seen to lend a 10-fold enhancement to the potency. Potency also is found to be correlated with hydrophobicity. II is found to improve the control of postprandial hyperglycemia in diabetic animals when given in combination with insulin. The analog is found to be quite stable in the blood and in the gastrointestinal tract, but the bioavailability after oral administration is only 1-3%. The biological properties and long duration of II should allow clinical evaluation of the inhibition of glucagon release as an adjunct to insulin in the treatment of patients with diabetes.

Gas chromatographic determination of a diuretic-antihypertensive agent, (+/-)-[[6,7-dichloro-2-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-methyl-1-oxo-5-indanyl] oxy]acetic acid, in biological fluids.

A method for the measurement of a potential diuretic-antihypertensive agent, (+/-)-[[6,7-dichloro-2-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-methyl-1-oxo-5-indanyl] oxy]acetic acid, in biological fluids is described. The procedure involves the addition of a related internal standard to the specimens followed by extraction of the acids into toluene at pH 1. The indanyloxyacetic acids, following back-extraction into base and reextraction into methylene chloride at an acidic pH, are converted to methyl esters by reaction with ethereal diazomethane for subsequent gas chromatographic analysis. The sensitivity of the method is such that 5 ng of drug in 1 mL of biological specimen can be quantitated using a 63Ni electron-capture detector. The recovery from plasma in the 5-2000-ng/mL range (n = 53) was 97.0 +/- 16.3%. Differences were noted in the disposition of the enantiomers of this agent in dogs following a pharmacologically active dose.

Disposition and metabolism of (+)-5-methyl-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo[a,d] cyclohepten-5,10-imine in rats, dogs, and monkeys.

The disposition and metabolism of (+)-5-methyl-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo[a,d]cyclohepten-5,10-imine (MK-801), a new agent with potent anticonvulsant, central sympathomimetic, and apparent anxiolytic properties, was studied in rats, dogs, and rhesus monkeys. [3H]benzene-MK-801 was administered orally at a dose of 1 mg/kg. MK-801 was measured in plasma by GLC using a nitrogen detector; the overall sensitivity of the method was 3 ng/ml. Radioactivity was excreted mainly in urine of dogs and monkeys but fecal excretion in rats was also extensive. The apparent plasma t1/2 of MK-801 in the rat and dog was approximately 1 hr. Maximal plasma levels of MK-801 in the rat, dog, and monkey were 46 (0.5 hr), 16 (0.25 hr), and 10 (2 hr) ng/ml, respectively. Radioactivity was extensively excreted in rat bile and was widely distributed among various tissues. Major metabolites of the drug in rat and dog urine were the 2- and 8-hydroxy analogs (rat) and the N-hydroxy derivative (dog).

Stereoselectivity in the disposition and metabolism of the uricosuric-diuretic agent, indacrinone, in Rhesus monkeys.

The physiological disposition following intravenous dosing of the separate enantiomers of indacrinone-14C (I), and of their major metabolite, 4'-hydroxyindacrinone-14C (M), was studied in the rhesus monkey. Pharmacokinetic analysis indicated that the disposition of I and M was stereoselective. In the case of the enantiomers of I, the areas under the curves of plasma concentration vs. time were about sevenfold greater for the (S)(+)- as compared to the (R)(-)-enantiomer. Renal and plasma clearances of (R)(-)-I were five to seven times greater than those of (S)(+)-I. Total urinary recovery of unchanged drug and metabolite accounted for 70% of the administered dose of either enantiomer. The systemic availability of (R)(-)-M from (R)(-)-I was approximately 21% of the dose, whereas that of (S)(+)-M from (S)(+)-I was only 4%. More pronounced differences were noted in the kinetics of metabolite disposition. The AUC values were about 27 times greater for (S)(+)-M than (R)(-)-M, and the renal and plasma clearances were approximately 25-fold higher for (R)(-)-M as compared to (S)(+)-M. The volume of distribution of (S)(+)-M was only 12% of that observed with (R)(+)-M. There was no evidence of glucuronide or sulfate conjugates of any of the enantiomers. These findings are consistent with the pharmacological activity attributed to the different enantiomers.

Physiologic disposition and metabolism of an anti-ulcer agent, N-(2-diisopropylaminoethyl)-N-(4,6-dimethyl-2-pyridyl)-N',N'-dimethylurea, in rats, dogs, and monkeys.

14C-N-(2-Diisopropylaminoethyl)-N-(4,6-dimethyl-2-dimethyl- 2-pyridyl)-N',N'-dimethylurea (I) was administered orally to dogs and rats and to rhesus, African green, and squirrel monkeys. Radioactivity was excreted mainly in the urine (60-76%) of all species except the rat (25%). The plasma t1/2 of I in the dog was 0.8 hr. Five urinary metabolites were identified by TLC, GLC, GS/MS, and NMR spectrometry: N,N-dimethyl-N'-(2-diisopropylaminoethyl)-N'-(4-hydroxy-methyl-6-methyl-2-pyridyl)urea (II), N,N-dimethyl-N'-(2-diisopropylaminoethyl-N'-(4-methyl-6-hydroxymethyl-2-pyridyl )urea (III), N,N-dimethyl-N'-(2-isopropylaminoethyl)-N'-(4,6-dimethyl-2-pyridyl)urea (IV), N-methyl-N'-(2-diisopropylaminoethyl)-N'-(4,6-dimethyl-2-pyridyl)urea (V), and N-(2-diisopropylaminoethyl)-N-(4,6-dimethyl-2-pyridyl)urea (VI). II was a major urinary metabolite in dog and II and IV were major metabolites in the squirrel monkey. II was present in relatively high concentrations in testes and stomach tissues of dogs, but not rats, treated with I, a finding that may be related to species differences in toxicity observed with I in these species.

Pharmacology of enantiomers and (-) p-OH metabolite of indacrinone.

Indacrinone, a racemic mixture, is a loop-blocking diuretic with effects on uric acid elimination that differ from those of furosemide. A series of studies in healthy men was undertaken to characterize the pharmacologic activity of the positive (+) and negative (-) enantiomers (E) of indacrinone and its (-) p-OH metabolite, (-) MET. All subjects were on sodium- and potassium-controlled diet; each experiment was similar in design and included placebo and positive controls. Oral (-)E and (-)MET exerted dose-related natriuretic and diuretic effects; intravenous doses of (-)E were more effective than (-)MET. The effects of (-)E and (-)MET on serum uric acid were the same as those reported with indacrinone. After (-)E, both (-)E and generated (-)MET appeared to contribute to the natriuresis. (+)E induced dose-related decreases in serum uric acid up to 24 hr after dosage; at the higher doses of (+)E, the hypouricemic effects were of the order of those after 500 mg of probenecid. Thus, indacrinone is a novel loop diuretic with enantiomers and a (-)MET, each of which has a different pharmacologic profile.

Inhibitors of indoleethylamine N-methyltransferase. Derivatives of 3-methyl-2-thiazolidinimine. In vitro, in vivo, and metabolic studies.

A variety of substituent groups has been attached to the exocyclic imine function of 2-imino-3-methylthiazolidine (1) in a search for metabolic precursors of this potent inhibitor of the enzyme indoleethylamine N-methyltransferase (INMT) which would exhibit superior pharmacodynamic properties in animals. It has been determined that chemically stable derivatives of 1 based on succinic, nicotinic, and N-acylated amino acids, although they lack in vitro efficacy, are potent inhibitors of INMT when administered orally or intravenously to rabbits. Metabolic studies carried out with 14C-labeled N,N'-bix(3-methyl-2-thiazolidinylidene)succinamide (3) have established that conversion of this compound to 1 occurs both in the whole rabbit and in the isolated rabbit liver. 1 itself has been shown to be metabolically inert in rabbits, being excreted primarily in the urine.

The metabolic disposition of (S)-2-(3-tert-butylamino-2-hydroxypropoxy)-3-cyanopyridine in rats, dogs, and humans.

Studies of the metabolic disposition of (S)-2-(3-tert-butylamino-2-hydroxypropoxy)-3-[14C]cyanopyridine (I) have been performed in humans, dogs, and spontaneously hypertensive rats. After an iv injection of I (5 mg/kg), a substantial fraction of the radioactivity was excreted in the feces of rats (32%) and dogs (31%). After oral administration of I (5 mg/kg) the urinary recoveries of radioactivity for rat and dog were 19% and 53%, respectively, and represented a minimum value for absorption because of biliary excretion of radioactivity. In man, bililary excretion of I appeared to be of minor significance because four male subjects, after receiving 6 mg of I p.o., excreted 76% and 9% of the dose of radioactivity in the urine and feces, respectively. Unchanged I represented 58% of the radioactivity excreted in human urine. The half-life for renal elimination of I was determined to be 4.0 +/- 0.9 /hr. In contrast, unchanged I represented 7% and 1% of excreted radioactivity in rat and dog urine, respectively. A metabolite of I common to man, dog, and rat was identified as 5-hydroxy-I, which represented approximately 5% of the excreted radioactivity in all species. Minor metabolites of I in which the pyridine nucleus had undergone additional hydroxylation were present in dog urine along with an oxyacetic acid metabolite, also bearing a hydroxylated pyridine nucleus.

Separation and spectral properties of diisopropylphosphate, the major decomposition product of isoflurophate.

The reaction of water with isoflurophate to form diisopropylphosphate was examined and confirmed. Isolation of this decomposition product from an antiglaucoma drug formulation is described. A known reference compound was isolated from a commercial mixture also containing the monoisopropyl ester. The isolation, purification, and molecular spectroscopic and elemental confirmation of structure are described. IR, NMR, and mass spectra are included. Additionally, a GLC procedure and parameters used to identify diisopropylphosphate in a degraded peanut oil formulation of isofluorphate are reported. Reaction mixtures of this drug with water and sodium hydroxide were analyzed by GLC with the expected results.

Metabolism of protriptyline by rabbit liver in vitro.

A new metabolite of protriptyline formed by incubation of the drug in a rabbit liver microsomal system was identified as the hydroxylamine derivative by mass spectral and NMR analysis.