Social Impact Bonds as a Funding Method for Health and Social Programs: Potential Areas of Concern.

Social Impact Bonds (SIBs) represent a new way to finance social service and health promotion programs whereby different types of investors provide an upfront investment of capital. If a given program meets predetermined criteria for a successful outcome, the government pays back investors with interest. Introduced in the United Kingdom in 2010, SIBs have since been implemented in the United States and across Europe, with some uptake in other jurisdictions. We identify and explore selected areas of concern related to SIBs, drawing from literature examining market-based reforms to health and social services and the evolution of the SIB funding mechanism. These areas of concern include increased costs to governments, restricted program scope, fragmented policymaking, undermining of public-sector service provision, mischaracterization of the root causes of social problems, and entrenchment of systemically produced vulnerabilities. We argue that it is essential to consider the long-term, aggregate, and contextualized effects of SIBs in order to evaluate their potential to contribute to public health. We conclude that such evaluations must explore the assumptions underlying the "common sense" arguments often used in support of SIBs.

Online Versus Face-To-Face Training of Critical Time Intervention: A Matching Cluster Randomized Trial.

This study examined the effectiveness of online education to providers who serve people experiencing homelessness, comparing online and face-to-face training of Critical Time Intervention (CTI), an evidence-based case management model. The authors recruited 184 staff from 19 homeless service agencies to participate in one of two training conditions: (a) Online Training + Community of Practice or (b) Face-to-Face Training + Telephone Consultation. Each group received 24 hours of instruction and support. Through baseline, follow-up, and nine-month post-training surveys, the authors examined satisfaction, knowledge gains, knowledge retention, and readiness to implement CTI. While satisfaction rates were higher among participants in the face-to-face group, the two training conditions produced comparable pre/post knowledge gains. Furthermore, both groups showed increased knowledge retention scores at nine-month follow up, with the online group scoring higher than the face-to-face group.

Understanding Housing Delays and Relocations Within the Housing First Model.

This study explores factors contributing to delays and relocations during the implementation of the Housing First model in Toronto, Ontario. While interruptions in housing tenure are expected en route to recovery and housing stability, consumer and service provider views on finding and keeping housing remain largely unknown. In-person interviews and focus groups were conducted with 48 study participants, including 23 case managers or housing workers and 25 consumers. The following three factors contributed to housing delays and transfers: (1) the effectiveness of communication and collaboration among consumers and service providers, (2) consumer-driven preferences and ambivalence, and (3) provider prioritization of consumer choice over immediate housing access. Two strategies--targeted communications and consumer engagement in housing searches--supported the housing process. Several factors affect the timing and stability of housing. Communication between and among providers and consumers, and a shared understanding of consumer choice, can further support choice and recovery.

Research Assistants Caught in Limbo: Considering Their Role in Quantitative, Longitudinal Research with Vulnerable Populations.

Research assistants (RAs) play a variety of roles that are critical in making research happen and in determining its quality and effectiveness. Yet their locus of power in the production of knowledge stands in sharp contrast to their relative powerlessness in the hierarchical research organization. This article explores the experiences of RAs engaged in a randomized controlled longitudinal field trial of a Housing First intervention for individuals experiencing homelessness and mental illness in Toronto. They encountered several unexpected effects of navigating the power ascribed to them by both study participants and community service providers. This study underscores the importance of acknowledging that RAs are the face of the research study in the field, and of better understanding implications associated with that fact, especially when marginalized populations and their providers are involved.

Shrinking the language accessibility gap: a mixed methods evaluation of telephone interpretation services in a large, diverse urban health care system.

INTRODUCTION: Language interpretation services for patients who are not proficient in a country's official language(s) are essential for improving health equity across diverse populations, and achieving clinical safety and quality for both patients and providers. Nevertheless, overall use of these services remains low, regardless of how they are delivered. In Toronto, Ontario, one of the most ethnically diverse urban centres, the regional local health integration network which oversees the highest concentration of health care organizations servicing 1.2 million residents, partnered with key stakeholders to make Over-the-Phone (OPI) interpretation services broadly and economically available in 170 different languages to its diverse network of health care organizations. This evaluation aimed to assess patients' and providers' experiences with OPI in these varied settings and the impact (if any) on alternative interpretation services and on health service delivery access and quality. METHODS: This study used a two-phased sequential exploratory mixed-methods approach to evaluate the initiative. Phase I was comprised of semi-structured interviews with representatives from the program stakeholders; these findings were applied to identify appropriate survey questions and response categories, and provided context and depth of understanding to Phase II results. Phase II included web-based and self-administered surveys for both providers and patients engaging with OPI. RESULTS: Both providers and patients identified a broad range of positive impacts OPI had on health care service delivery quality and access, and high levels of satisfaction with OPI, in a variety of health care settings. Providers also revealed a marked decrease in the use of ad-hoc, nonprofessional strategies for interpretation after the implementation of OPI, and noted it had either no impact on their workload or had decreased it overall. CONCLUSIONS: OPI is clearly not the sole answer to the complex array of health care needs and access gaps that exist for persons without proficiency in their country's official language. Nevertheless, this evaluation provides compelling evidence that OPI is a valuable component, and that it may contribute to a broader range of positive impacts, and within a broader range of health care settings, than previously explored.

Strategies to balance fidelity to Housing First principles with local realities: lessons from a large urban centre.

The importance of program implementation in achieving desired outcomes is well-documented, but there remains a need for concrete guidance on how to achieve fidelity to evidence-based models within dynamic local contexts. Housing First (HF), an evidence-based model for people experiencing homelessness and mental illness, provides an important test-case for such guidance; it targets a uniquely underserved subpopulation with complex needs, and is delivered by practitioners with varying knowledge and skill levels. Scientific evidence affirms HF's effectiveness, but its rapid dissemination has outpaced the ability to monitor not only whether it is being implemented with fidelity, but also how this can be achieved within variable local contexts and challenges. This qualitative study contributes to this need by capturing insights from practitioners on implementation challenges and specific strategies developed to overcome them. Findings reinforce the importance of developing HF-specific implementation guidelines, and of engaging relevant stakeholders throughout all phases of that development.

The impact of a Housing First randomized controlled trial on substance use problems among homeless individuals with mental illness.

BACKGROUND: There is strong evidence that Housing First interventions are effective in improving housing stability and quality of life among homeless people with mental illness and addictions. However, there is very little evidence on the effectiveness of Housing First in improving substance use-related outcomes in this population. This study uses a randomized control design to examine the effects of scatter-site Housing First on substance use outcomes in a large urban centre. METHODS: Substance use outcomes were compared between a Housing First intervention and treatment as usual group in a sample of 575 individuals experiencing homelessness and mental illness, with or without a co-occurring substance use problem, in the At Home/Chez Soi trial in Toronto, Canada. Generalized linear models were used to compare study arms with respect to change in substance use outcomes over time (baseline, 6, 12, 18 and 24 month). RESULTS: At 24 months, participants in the Housing First intervention had significantly greater reductions in number of days experiencing alcohol problems and amount of money spent on alcohol than participants in the Treatment as Usual group. No differences between the study arms in illicit drug outcomes were found at 24 months. CONCLUSIONS: These findings show that a Housing First intervention can contribute to reductions in alcohol problems over time. However, the lack of effect of the intervention on illicit drug problems suggests that individuals experiencing homelessness, mental illness and drug problems may need additional supports to reduce use. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current controlled trials ISRCTN42520374.

Differential experiences of discrimination among ethnoracially diverse persons experiencing mental illness and homelessness.

BACKGROUND: This mixed methods study explored the characteristics of and experiences with perceived discrimination in an ethnically diverse urban sample of adults experiencing homelessness and mental illness. METHODS: Data were collected in Toronto, Ontario, as part of a 4-year national randomized field trial of the Housing First treatment model. Rates of perceived discrimination were captured from survey questions regarding perceived discrimination among 231 ethnoracially diverse participants with moderate mental health needs. The qualitative component included thirty six in-depth interviews which explored how individuals who bear these multiple identities of oppression navigate stigma and discrimination, and what affects their capacity to do so. RESULTS: Quantitative analysis revealed very high rates of perceived discrimination related to: homelessness/poverty (61.5%), race/ethnicity/skin colour (50.6%) and mental illness/substance use (43.7%). Immigrants and those who had been homeless three or more years reported higher perceived discrimination on all three domains. Analysis of qualitative interviews revealed three common themes related to navigating these experiences of discrimination among participants: 1) social distancing; 2) old and new labels/identities; and, 3) 'homeland' cultures. CONCLUSIONS: These study findings underscore poverty and homelessness as major sources of perceived discrimination, and expose underlying complexities in the navigation of multiple identities in responding to stigma and discrimination. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN42520374 . Registered 18 August 2009.

Different faces of discrimination: perceived discrimination among homeless adults with mental illness in healthcare settings.

BACKGROUND: Research on discrimination in healthcare settings has primarily focused on health implications of race-based discrimination among ethno-racial minority groups. Little is known about discrimination experiences of other marginalized populations, particularly groups facing multiple disadvantages who may be subjected to other/multiple forms of discrimination. OBJECTIVES: (1) To examine the prevalence of perceived discrimination due to homelessness/poverty, mental illness/alcohol/drug related problems, and race/ethnicity/skin color while seeking healthcare in the past year among racially diverse homeless adults with mental illness; (2) To identify whether perceiving certain types of discrimination is associated with increased likelihood of perceiving other kinds of discrimination; and (3) To examine association of these perceived discrimination experiences with socio-demographic characteristics, self-reported measures of psychiatric symptomatology and substance use, and Emergency Department utilization. METHODS: We used baseline data from the Toronto site of the At Home/Chez Soi randomized controlled trial of Housing First for homeless adults with mental illness (n = 550). Bivariate statistics and multivariable logistic regression models were used for the analysis. RESULTS: Perceived discrimination related to homelessness/poverty (30.4%) and mental illness/alcohol/substance use (32.5%) is prevalent among ethnically diverse homeless adults with mental illness in healthcare settings. Only 15% of the total participants reported discrimination due to race/ethnicity/skin color. After controlling for relevant confounders and presence of psychosis, all types of discrimination in healthcare settings were associated with more frequent ED use, a greater - 3 - severity of lifetime substance abuse, and mental health problems. Perceiving discrimination of one type was associated with increased likelihood of perceiving other kinds of discrimination. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding the experience of discrimination in healthcare settings and associated healthcare utilization is the first step towards designing policies and interventions to address health disparities among vulnerable populations. This study contributes to the knowledge base in this important area. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: This study has been registered with the International Standard Randomized Control Trial Number Register and assigned ISRCTN42520374.

The role and meaning of interim housing in housing first programs for people experiencing homelessness and mental illness.

The housing first (HF) model for individuals experiencing homelessness and mental illness differs by design from traditional models that require consumers to achieve "housing readiness" by meeting program or treatment prerequisites in transitional housing settings prior to permanent housing placement. Given a growing body of evidence for its favorable outcomes and cost effectiveness, HF is increasingly seen as an alternative to and argument against these traditional programs. As such, it is important that the elements and implementation challenges of the HF model be clearly understood and articulated. This qualitative study explored a largely unexamined aspect of the HF model-the need for and meaning of temporary residential settings (interim housing), a place to stay while waiting to secure permanent housing-using interviews and focus groups with service providers and consumers who experienced interim housing during implementation of HF in a large urban center. Although interim housing may not be necessary for all programs implementing the model, our study revealed numerous reasons and demands for safe, flexible interim housing options, and illustrated how they influence the effectiveness of consumer recovery, continuous service engagement, and housing stability.

The promise of recovery: narratives of hope among homeless individuals with mental illness participating in a Housing First randomised controlled trial in Toronto, Canada.

OBJECTIVES: Hope is widely embraced as an important factor in the recovery process. The role of housing in inspiring hope and facilitating recovery has been explored with homeless populations but is not well understood. This study explores perspectives on hopes for recovery and the role of housing on these hopes from the perspective of homeless adults experiencing mental illness participating in a multisite Housing First randomised controlled trial in Canada. The study draws on data from in-depth qualitative interviews with participants from the Toronto, Ontario site of the 'At Home/Chez Soi' Project. DESIGN: In-depth interviews were conducted with a subsample of participants from a larger Housing First randomised controlled trial. SETTING: The research took place in Toronto, Canada. PARTICIPANTS: 60 participants in the larger trial (36 from the Housing First group and 24 from the Treatment as Usual group) took part in in-depth interviews. METHOD: Participants for the in-depth interviews were purposively selected from the larger trial sample in Toronto and participated in an interview at the beginning of the study (baseline). Data from the baseline interviews were analysed using the constant comparative method derived from grounded theory methods. RESULTS: Participants' narratives show clear visualisation of goals for recovery, and emphasise that housing is an integral factor that can facilitate hope and support dimensions of recovery. However, some participants had difficulty adjusting to housing, and were concerned about feeling socially isolated, which could have negative implications for hopefulness and recovery. CONCLUSIONS: Housing First interventions should explicitly incorporate hope-inspiring, recovery-oriented approaches and support participants while adjusting to housing in order to sustain hopefulness.

Health care for the homeless: what we have learned in the past 30 years and what's next.

In the 1980s, the combined effects of deinstitutionalization from state mental hospitals and the economic recession increased the number and transformed the demographic profile of people experiencing homelessness in the United States. Specialized health care for the homeless (HCH) services were developed when it became clear that the mainstream health care system could not sufficiently address their health needs. The HCH program has grown consistently during that period; currently, 208 HCH sites are operating, and the program has become embedded in the federal health care system. We reflect on lessons learned from the HCH model and its applicability to the changing landscape of US health care.

Medical respite programs for homeless patients: a systematic review.

Medical respite programs provide care to homeless patients who are too sick to be on the streets or in a traditional shelter, but not sick enough to warrant inpatient hospitalization. They are designed to improve the health of homeless patients while also decreasing costly hospital use. Although there is increasing interest in implementing respite programs, there has been no prior systematic review of their effectiveness. We conducted a comprehensive search for studies of medical respite program outcomes in multiple biomedical and sociological databases, and the grey literature. Thirteen articles met inclusion criteria. The articles were heterogeneous in methods, study quality, inclusion of a comparison group, and outcomes examined. Available evidence showed that medical respite programs reduced future hospital admissions, inpatient days, and hospital readmissions. They also resulted in improved housing outcomes. Results for emergency department use and costs were mixed but promising. Future research utilizing adequate comparison groups is needed.

Hepatitis C among clients of health care for the homeless primary care clinics.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the prevalence, distribution and risk factors for hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection among homeless adults using eight Health Care for the Homeless (HCH) clinics nationally. METHODS: Data were collected for 387 participants through blood draws, structured interviews, chart reviews. RESULTS: Overall prevalence of HCV-antibody positivity was 31.0%, including 70.0% among injection drug users and 15.5% among reported non-injectors. Much HCV infection was hidden as the majority (53.3%) of HCV-antibody positive participants was unaware of their status. Independent risk factors for HCV among the total sample included injection drug use, prison, and tattoos; among injectors, risk factors included prison and three or more years of injection drug use; among reported non-injectors, risk factors included tattoos and prison. CONCLUSION: These HCH clinics serve high concentrations of HCV-infected injectors, making these and similar clinics priority intervention sites for aggressive screening, education, testing, and treatment for HCV and other blood-borne diseases.

Provision of contraceptive services to homeless women: results of a survey of health care for the homeless providers.

Homeless women have both a higher rate of pregnancy and a higher proportion of unintended pregnancies than other American women. The authors sought to learn about contraception services offered by providers of health care to homeless women and barriers to provision of long-acting, reversible contraception in these settings. A survey of the 31 member organizations in the national Health Care for the Homeless Practice-Based Research Network was conducted, inquiring about services provided and barriers to service provision. Among the 20 responding organizations (65% response rate), 17 directly provided contraceptive services; two referred patients elsewhere, and one provided no contraceptive services. All 17 that provided such services provided condoms; 15 provided oral contraceptives; 14 provided injectable contraception; 6 provided intrauterine devices, and 2 provided contraceptive implants. Barriers to providing the last two methods included lack of provider training, lack of resources for placement, costs, and concerns about complications. The present survey results suggested very limited access for homeless women across the country to the two most effective means of long-acting, reversible contraception. Modest investments of resources could reduce a number of barriers to providing these services.

Common needs but divergent interventions for U.S. homeless and foster care children: results from a systematic review.

Many children living in homeless situations in the U.S. have temporary stays in foster care, and both populations suffer disproportionately higher rates of physical, psychological and social difficulties compared with other children. However, very little is known about which specific interventions achieve the best outcomes for children in these overlapping transitional living situations. To address this gap, we review existing literature to identify the most promising practices for children living in transition. A standardised vocabulary specific to each of three electronic databases (i.e. Medline, PsychINFO and CINAHL) was employed to identify studies that described an intervention specifically targeting foster care or homeless children and families. Separate systematic searches were conducted for homeless and foster children, and only studies published in English between January 1993 and February 2009 were selected. The final sample (n = 43) of articles described interventions that fell into two categories: mental health (n = 17) and case management (n = 26). No article included a sample containing both homeless and foster care children, and most studies on homeless children used case management interventions while most studies on foster care children focused on mental health interventions. Few articles employed rigorous study designs. Although repeatedly studies have demonstrated the overlap between populations of homeless and foster care children, studies focused on one population or the other. Virtually all studies on both homeless and foster children devised interventions to reduce trauma and family instability; yet, no evidence-based practice addresses the overlapping needs and potentially relevant evidence-based practice for these two populations. An important and vital next step is to establish an effective evidence-based intervention that reduces the impact of trauma on both U.S. populations of children living in transition.

Medical respite care for homeless people: a growing national phenomenon.

The first known respite care facilities for homeless people emerged in the mid-1980s, but recent trends in health systems and services have driven their rapid proliferation across the country within the past decade. This report is the first attempt to describe these respite programs comprehensively.

Survey findings on characteristics and health status of clients treated by the federally funded (US) Health Care for the Homeless Programs.

For almost two decades, the US Health Care for the Homeless (HCH) Program has funded clinics across the country for homeless populations. Between October and December 2003, for the first time ever, a nationally representative sample of the almost 200 HCH clinics with a response rate of approximately 71% (the HCH User Visit Survey) was created to examine the health status of its users (n = 1017). This study employed the HCH User Visit Survey's cross-sectional data set to evaluate health indicators of individuals using HCH Services with the US population, and compare individuals who reported they routinely used HCH clinics ('usual' HCH users) to those who did not ('non-usual' users). HCH users had poorer health status than the US population (44.0% versus 12.3%, respectively). Usual HCH users had similar healthcare status compared to non-usual users, but were more likely to be uninsured, non-English speakers, and walking or taking public transportation to their medical appointments. Usual versus non-usual HCH users were also more apt to have slept in cars, buses or on the streets in the week prior to the survey (14.8% versus 4.3%, respectively). This study shows that the HCH clinics are serving homeless individuals who have a variety of complex health and psychosocial needs, and its most frequent users are those who experience the most barriers accessing care.