Social versus non-social behavioral inhibition: Differential prediction from early childhood of long-term psychosocial outcomes.

Behavioral inhibition (BI) is a temperamental style characterized by cautious and fearful behaviors in novel situations. The present multi-method, longitudinal study examined whether young children's observed and parent-reported BI in social versus non-social contexts predicts different long-term psychosocial outcomes. Participants (N = 279) were drawn from a longitudinal study of socioemotional development. BI in social contexts ("social BI") was measured via children's observed wariness toward unfamiliar adults and peers at 24 and 36 months and parents' reports of children's social fear/shyness at 24, 36, and 48 months. BI in non-social contexts ("non-social BI") was measured via children's observed fearful responses to masks and novel toys, and parents' reports of children's distress to non-social novelty at 9 months and non-social fear at 48 months. At 15 years, anxiety was assessed via adolescent- and parent-reports, and global internalizing and externalizing problems were assessed via parent-reports. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that a two-factor model fit the BI data significantly better than a single-factor model, providing evidence for the dissociation of BI in social versus non-social contexts. Social BI was uniquely associated with adolescent social anxiety, whereas non-social BI was specifically associated with adolescent separation anxiety. Neither social BI nor non-social BI predicted global internalizing and externalizing problems, providing evidence for the specific relations between BI and anxiety problems. Together, these results suggest that young children's inhibited responses in social versus non-social situations predict different subtypes of anxiety problems in adolescence, highlighting the multifaceted nature of BI and the divergent trajectories of different anxiety problems.

Component-specific developmental trajectories of ERP indices of cognitive control in early childhood.

Early childhood is characterized by robust developmental changes in cognitive control. However, our understanding of intra-individual change in neural indices of cognitive control during this period remains limited. Here, we examined developmental changes in event-related potential (ERP) indices of cognitive control from preschool through first grade, in a large and diverse sample of children (N = 257). We recorded ERPs during a visual Go/No-Go task. N2 and P3b mean amplitudes were extracted from the observed waveforms (Go and No-Go) and the difference wave (No-Go minus Go, or ∆). Latent growth curve modeling revealed that while N2 Go and No-Go amplitudes showed no linear change, P3b Go and No-Go amplitudes displayed linear decreases in magnitude (became less positive) over time. ∆N2 amplitude demonstrated a linear increase in magnitude (became more negative) over time whereas ∆P3b amplitude was more positive in kindergarten compared to preschool. Younger age in preschool predicted greater rates of change in ∆N2 amplitude, and higher maternal education predicted larger initial P3b Go and No-Go amplitudes in preschool. Our findings suggest that observed waveforms and difference waves are not interchangeable for indexing neurodevelopment, and the developmental trajectories of different ERP indices of cognitive control are component-specific in early childhood.

Simultaneous multimodal fNIRS-EEG recordings reveal new insights in neural activity during motor execution, observation, and imagery.

Motor execution, observation, and imagery are important skills used in motor learning and rehabilitation. The neural mechanisms underlying these cognitive-motor processes are still poorly understood. We used a simultaneous recording of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and electroencephalogram (EEG) to elucidate the differences in neural activity across three conditions requiring these processes. Additionally, we used a new method called structured sparse multiset Canonical Correlation Analysis (ssmCCA) to fuse the fNIRS and EEG data and determine the brain regions of neural activity consistently detected by both modalities. Unimodal analyses revealed differentiated activation between conditions; however, the activated regions did not fully overlap across the two modalities (fNIRS: left angular gyrus, right supramarginal gyrus, as well as right superior and inferior parietal lobes; EEG: bilateral central, right frontal, and parietal). These discrepancies might be because fNIRS and EEG detect different signals. Using fused fNIRS-EEG data, we consistently found activation over the left inferior parietal lobe, superior marginal gyrus, and post-central gyrus during all three conditions, suggesting that our multimodal approach identifies a shared neural region associated with the Action Observation Network (AON). This study highlights the strengths of using the multimodal fNIRS-EEG fusion technique for studying AON. Neural researchers should consider using the multimodal approach to validate their findings.

A Developmental Pathway from Early Inhibitory Control to Social Connectedness.

Social connections are critical for mental and physical health; however, the developmental pathways to children's social connectedness outcomes are not well understood. This study examined the pathways from children's inhibitory control at 4 years to two social connectedness outcomes - loneliness and friendship quality at age 10 - through behavioral problems at age 7. As part of a longitudinal study (N = 291, 54% girls), children's inhibitory control was assessed via a Go/No-Go task when children were 4 years old. Mothers reported on children's behavioral problems at ages 4 and 7 years. Children reported on their friendship quality and loneliness at ages 7 and 10 years. Greater inhibitory control at 4 years predicted lower behavioral problems at 7 years, which in turn predicted better friendship quality and lower loneliness at 10 years. Indirect effects from inhibitory control at 4 years to loneliness and friendship quality at 10 years via behavioral problems at 7 years were significant. Findings suggest that inhibitory control in early childhood may play a key role for the development of social connectedness in middle childhood via its impact on children's behavioral problems.

Effects of foster care intervention and caregiving quality on the bidirectional development of executive functions and social skills following institutional rearing.

Institutional rearing negatively impacts the development of children's social skills and executive functions (EF). However, little is known about whether childhood social skills mediate the effects of the foster care intervention (FCG) and foster caregiving quality following early institutional rearing on EF and social skills in adolescence. We examined (a) whether children's social skills at 8 years mediate the impact of the FCG on the development of EF at ages 12 and 16 years, and (b) whether social skills and EF at ages 8 and 12 mediate the relation between caregiving quality in foster care at 42 months and subsequent social skills and EF at age 16. Participants included abandoned children from Romanian institutions, who were randomly assigned to a FCG (n = 68) or care as usual (n = 68), and a never-institutionalized group (n = 135). At ages 8, 12, and 16, social skills were assessed via caregiver and teacher reports and EF were assessed via the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery. Caregiving quality of foster caregivers was observed at 42 months. FCG predicted better social skills at 8 years, which in turn predicted better EF in adolescence. Higher caregiver quality in foster care at 42 months predicted better social skills at 8 and 12 years, and better EF at 12 years, which in turn predicted 16-year EF and social skills. These findings suggest that interventions targeting caregiving quality within foster care home environments may have long-lasting positive effects on children's social skills and EF.

Annual Research Review: Developmental pathways linking early behavioral inhibition to later anxiety.

Behavioral Inhibition is a temperament identified in the first years of life that enhances the risk for development of anxiety during late childhood and adolescence. Amongst children characterized with this temperament, only around 40 percent go on to develop anxiety disorders, meaning that more than half of these children do not. Over the past 20 years, research has documented within-child and socio-contextual factors that support differing developmental pathways. This review provides a historical perspective on the research documenting the origins of this temperament, its biological correlates, and the factors that enhance or mitigate risk for development of anxiety. We review as well, research findings from two longitudinal cohorts that have identified moderators of behavioral inhibition in understanding pathways to anxiety. Research on these moderators has led us to develop the Detection and Dual Control (DDC) framework to understand differing developmental trajectories among behaviorally inhibited children. In this review, we use this framework to explain why and how specific cognitive and socio-contextual factors influence differential pathways to anxiety versus resilience.

Structural Brain Correlates of Childhood Inhibited Temperament: An ENIGMA-Anxiety Mega-analysis.

Temperament involves stable behavioral and emotional tendencies that differ between individuals, which can be first observed in infancy or early childhood and relate to behavior in many contexts and over many years.1 One of the most rigorously characterized temperament classifications relates to the tendency of individuals to avoid the unfamiliar and to withdraw from unfamiliar people, objects, and unexpected events. This temperament is referred to as behavioral inhibition or inhibited temperament (IT).2 IT is a moderately heritable trait1 that can be measured in multiple species.3 In humans, levels of IT can be quantified from the first year of life through direct behavioral observations or reports by caregivers or teachers. Similar approaches as well as self-report questionnaires on current and/or retrospective levels of IT1 can be used later in life.

Structured sparse multiset canonical correlation analysis of simultaneous fNIRS and EEG provides new insights into the human action-observation network.

The action observation network (AON) is a network of brain regions involved in the execution and observation of a given action. The AON has been investigated in humans using mostly electroencephalogram (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), but shared neural correlates of action observation and action execution are still unclear due to lack of ecologically valid neuroimaging measures. In this study, we used concurrent EEG and functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) to examine the AON during a live-action observation and execution paradigm. We developed structured sparse multiset canonical correlation analysis (ssmCCA) to perform EEG-fNIRS data fusion. MCCA is a generalization of CCA to more than two sets of variables and is commonly used in medical multimodal data fusion. However, mCCA suffers from multi-collinearity, high dimensionality, unimodal feature selection, and loss of spatial information in interpreting the results. A limited number of participants (small sample size) is another problem in mCCA, which leads to overfitted models. Here, we adopted graph-guided (structured) fused least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) penalty to mCCA to conduct feature selection, incorporating structural information amongst the variables (i.e., brain regions). Benefitting from concurrent recordings of brain hemodynamic and electrophysiological responses, the proposed ssmCCA finds linear transforms of each modality such that the correlation between their projections is maximized. Our analysis of 21 right-handed participants indicated that the left inferior parietal region was active during both action execution and action observation. Our findings provide new insights into the neural correlates of AON which are more fine-tuned than the results from each individual EEG or fNIRS analysis and validate the use of ssmCCA to fuse EEG and fNIRS datasets.

Autonomic profiles and self-regulation outcomes in early childhood.

This study examined autonomic profiles in preschoolers (N = 278, age = 4.7 years) and their relations to self-regulation outcomes concurrently and one year later, in kindergarten. Children's sympathetic (preejection period [PEP]) and parasympathetic activity (respiratory sinus arrythmia [RSA]) were measured at rest and during cognitive and emotional tasks. Three self-regulatory competencies were assessed: executive functions, emotion regulation and behavioral regulation. Executive functioning was measured at ages 4 and 5 using laboratory tasks designed to assess updating/working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility. Emotion regulation was observed during emotionally distressing tasks in the laboratory, both at ages 4 and 5. Behavioral regulation and emotional reactivity were assessed via teacher ratings in kindergarten, at age 5. Latent profile analysis yielded four autonomic profiles: moderate parasympathetic inhibition (45%), reciprocal sympathetic activation (26%), coinhibition (25%), and high sympathetic activation (7%). The reciprocal sympathetic activation group showed better executive functioning in preschool and kindergarten, particularly compared to the high sympathetic activation group. The moderate parasympathetic inhibition group showed lower emotional reactivity and better behavioral regulation in kindergarten, compared to the other three groups. Findings suggest that autonomic profiles meaningfully associate with self-regulation outcomes in early childhood, such that certain profiles relate to better self-regulation than others.

A Developmental Pathway From Early Behavioral Inhibition to Young Adults' Anxiety During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Objective: The COVID-19 pandemic has brought unprecedented changes to young adults' lives, resulting in mental health difficulties for many; however, some individuals are particularly prone to heightened anxiety. Little is known about the early life predictors of anxiety during the pandemic. We examined a developmental pathway from behavioral inhibition (BI), a temperament characterized by fearful responses toward novelty, to changes in young adults' anxiety during the initial period of the pandemic. We hypothesized that a stable pattern of BI across early childhood would predict greater adolescent worry dysregulation, which in turn would predict increases in young adult anxiety during a stressful phase of the pandemic. Method: Participants (N = 291; 54% female) were followed from toddlerhood to young adulthood. BI was observed at ages 2 and 3 years. Social wariness was observed at age 7 years. Participants rated their worry dysregulation in adolescence (age 15) and anxiety in young adulthood (age 18) at 2 assessments during the COVID-19 pandemic, 1 month apart. Results: A significant moderated mediation, in which a stable pattern of BI from toddlerhood to childhood, as compared to the absence of this pattern, predicted greater worry dysregulation in adolescence. Worry dysregulation predicted elevated young adult anxiety in the second assessment during COVID-19, even after accounting for the first assessment. Conclusion: This study identifies a developmental pathway from toddlerhood BI to young adults' elevated anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic. Findings have implications for early identification of individuals at risk for dysregulated worry and the prevention of anxiety during stressful life events in young adulthood.Reprinted from J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 60, Zeytinoglu et al., A Developmental Pathway From Early Behavioral Inhibition to Young Adults' Anxiety During the COVID-19 Pandemic, pp. 1300-1308, copyright 2021, with permission from Elsevier.

When is Parental Suppression of Black Children's Negative Emotions Adaptive? The Role of Preparation for Racial Bias and Children's Resting Cardiac Vagal Tone.

Research demonstrates that Black parents attempt to suppress children's expressions of negative emotions (e.g., anger, fear), in part, to protect them from experiencing racial bias from authority figures. The goal of this study was to examine whether the effectiveness of parental suppression strategies in reducing behavior problems depends on whether parents talk to children about the potential of experiencing racism (i.e., preparation for bias) and children's resting cardiac vagal tone as indexed by baseline respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA). Ninety-four parents (97% mothers) who identified their child as Black (56% girls) completed questionnaires about their punitive and minimizing responses to their child's negative emotions and their child's internalizing and externalizing problems at ages 5 and 6. Children's baseline RSA was assessed at age 5. Results indicated that parents' suppression of children's negative emotions predicted decreased externalizing behaviors (e.g., acting out) only when parents talked to their children about racism. When parents did not contextualize their restrictions on children's emotional expressions with discussions about race, children with higher baseline RSA demonstrated increased externalizing behaviors, whereas those with lower baseline RSA were unaffected. Parental suppression strategies led to increased internalizing symptoms (e.g., anxiety, withdrawal) among children with higher baseline RSA regardless of whether parents discussed racism. Black parents face a conundrum in which suppressing their children's negative emotions, in hopes of subverting racism, may reduce their children's externalizing problems under some circumstances, but may increase the risk of their children developing internalizing problems. Implications for systemic policy change to combat racism are discussed.

Neurocognitive Profiles in Adolescence Predict Subsequent Anxiety Trajectories During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic has created increased stress and anxiety for many; however, some individuals are particularly prone to heightened anxiety. It is unclear if and how prestress neurocognitive factors moderate risk for anxiety during high-stress situations. Enhanced error monitoring and a cognitive control strategy of more instantaneous (reactive) control have both been independently related to anxiety. We examined if a specific neurocognitive profile characterized by heightened error monitoring and a more reactive cognitive control strategy in adolescence predicts young adults' anxiety trajectories across 3 early months of the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: As part of a longitudinal study (N = 291), data were acquired in adolescence (13 years) on error monitoring (n = 124) and cognitive control strategy (n = 119). In young adulthood (18 years), anxiety was assessed three times during the COVID-19 pandemic (n = 162). RESULTS: On average, participants experienced greater anxiety in the first COVID-19 pandemic assessment, then anxiety decreased in the following months. Error monitoring and cognitive control strategy interacted to predict anxiety trajectories, such that among adolescents with an increased reliance on reactive control, error monitoring predicted greater anxiety in the first assessment but greater decreases the following months as stay-at-home orders were lifted and families adapted to the restrictions. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that neurocognitive profiles in adolescence predict young adults' anxiety responses during a highly stressful period, such as the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic. Our findings have implications for the early identification of individuals at greater risk for anxiety.

Pathways from maternal shyness to adolescent social anxiety.

BACKGROUND: Social anxiety is amongst the most prevalent adolescent mental health problems; however, it is often unrecognized due to its comorbidity with other anxiety problems such as generalized anxiety. Thus, understanding the unique developmental pathways to social anxiety is critical for improving its prevention. We examined the pathway from maternal shyness, when children were 4 years old, to adolescents' social anxiety at age 15 through social wariness at age 7. We hypothesized that childhood social wariness would mediate the association between maternal shyness and social anxiety in adolescence. METHODS: Participants (N = 291; 54% female) were followed from early childhood to adolescence. Mothers reported on their own shyness when children were 4 years old. Social wariness toward unfamiliar peers was observed in the laboratory at ages 4 and 7. Adolescent social anxiety and generalized anxiety were assessed via self-report, parent-report, and clinical diagnoses at age 15. RESULTS: Maternal shyness was positively associated with adolescent social anxiety but not generalized anxiety at age 15. Higher levels of maternal shyness at age 4 predicted greater social wariness at age 7, which in turn predicted greater social anxiety but not generalized anxiety at age 15. Social wariness at age 7 partially mediated the association between maternal shyness and adolescent social anxiety. CONCLUSIONS: This study identifies a unique developmental pathway from maternal shyness to adolescent social anxiety. Findings suggest that childhood social wariness connects maternal shyness to adolescent social anxiety.

Which Anxious Adolescents Were Most Affected by the COVID-19 Pandemic?

Although the COVID-19 pandemic caused significant stress and anxiety among many, individuals' experiences varied. We examined if specific forms of anxiety predicted distinct trajectories of anxiety, perceived stress, and COVID-related worries during three early months of the pandemic. In a longitudinal study (N = 291), adolescents' (n = 194) social and generalized anxiety levels were assessed via parent- and self-reports and clinical diagnostic interviews. In young adulthood (n = 164), anxiety, stress, and COVID-related worries were assessed thrice during the pandemic. Pre-pandemic generalized anxiety predicted higher initial levels and maintenance of anxiety, stress, and COVID-related worries during the pandemic. In contrast, pre-pandemic social anxiety predicted lower initial levels of anxiety, stress, and COVID-related worries, but this initial effect on anxiety and stress was offset over time by social anxiety's positive effect on the slope. Our results highlight the importance of understanding how pre-pandemic factors influence individuals' experiences during the pandemic.

Cerebral hemodynamic response during a live action-observation and action-execution task: A fNIRS study.

Although many studies have examined the location of the action observation network (AON) in human adults, the shared neural correlates of action-observation and action-execution are still unclear partially due to lack of ecologically valid neuroimaging measures. In this study, we aim to demonstrate the feasibility of using functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to measure the neural correlates of action-observation and action execution regions during a live task. Thirty adults reached for objects or observed an experimenter reaching for objects while their cerebral hemodynamic responses including oxy-hemoglobin (HbO) and deoxy-hemoglobin (HbR) were recorded in the sensorimotor and parietal regions. Our results indicated that the parietal regions, including bilateral superior parietal lobule (SPL), bilateral inferior parietal lobule (IPL), right supra-marginal region (SMG) and right angular gyrus (AG) share neural activity during action-observation and action-execution. Our findings confirm the applicability of fNIRS for the study of the AON and lay the foundation for future work with developmental and clinical populations.

Long-Term Effects of Institutional Care and Enhanced Attachment Relationships on Close Adolescent Friendships.

This study examined whether early institutional rearing and attachment security influence the quality and quantity of friendships at age 16 in 138 participants, including children abandoned to institutions in Bucharest, Romania, who were randomized to care as usual (n = 45, 26 female), or foster care (n = 47, 25 female), and a never-institutionalized group (n = 46, 18 female). Adolescents in the foster care group with secure attachment to their foster mothers at 42 months were comparable to never-institutionalized adolescents in having more friends and more positive behaviors with their friend during dyadic interactions, compared to the foster care group with insecure attachment and care as usual group. Interventions targeting early child-caregiver attachment relationships may help foster the ability to build positive friendships in adolescence.

A Developmental Pathway From Early Behavioral Inhibition to Young Adults' Anxiety During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: The COVID-19 pandemic has brought unprecedented changes to young adults' lives, resulting in mental health difficulties for many; however, some individuals are particularly prone to heightened anxiety. Little is known about the early life predictors of anxiety during the pandemic. We examined a developmental pathway from behavioral inhibition (BI), a temperament characterized by fearful responses toward novelty, to changes in young adults' anxiety during the initial period of the pandemic. We hypothesized that a stable pattern of BI across early childhood would predict greater adolescent worry dysregulation, which in turn would predict increases in young adult anxiety during a stressful phase of the pandemic. METHOD: Participants (N = 291; 54% female) were followed from toddlerhood to young adulthood. BI was observed at ages 2 and 3 years. Social wariness was observed at age 7 years. Participants rated their worry dysregulation in adolescence (age 15) and anxiety in young adulthood (age 18) at 2 assessments during the COVID-19 pandemic, 1 month apart. RESULTS: A significant moderated mediation, in which a stable pattern of BI from toddlerhood to childhood, as compared to the absence of this pattern, predicted greater worry dysregulation in adolescence. Worry dysregulation predicted elevated young adult anxiety in the second assessment during COVID-19, even after accounting for the first assessment. CONCLUSION: This study identifies a developmental pathway from toddlerhood BI to young adults' elevated anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic. Findings have implications for early identification of individuals at risk for dysregulated worry and the prevention of anxiety during stressful life events in young adulthood.

Transactional Associations Between Parent and Late Adolescent Internalizing Symptoms During the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Moderating Role of Avoidant Coping.

Extensive research has demonstrated the transactional nature of parent-child psychopathology, with limited studies examining these effects during late adolescence and none, to our knowledge, longitudinally during the COVID-19 pandemic. The current study examined the cross-lagged effects of parent and adolescent internalizing symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic and the moderating role of avoidant coping. A sample of 291 adolescents (Age mean = 18.27; 53% female; 61% White) and their parents rated their own anxiety and depressive symptoms and coping during the first two months following stay-at-home orders during the COVID-19 pandemic. Parent internalizing symptoms at the first assessment predicted adolescent internalizing symptoms at the second assessment. Adolescent avoidant coping style moderated this effect of parent internalizing symptoms on adolescent internalizing symptoms in the subsequent month, such that parent internalizing symptoms predicted child internalizing symptoms only among adolescents with moderate to high rates of avoidant coping. Follow-up analyses indicated different patterns when examining depressive and anxiety symptoms separately. The results highlight complex family dynamics between adolescents and their parents and begin to differentiate how individual characteristics impact the response to a significant life event such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

An fNIRS Study of Brain Lateralization During Observation and Execution of a Fine Motor Task.

Brain activity in the action observation network (AON) is lateralized during action execution, with greater activation in the contralateral hemisphere to the side of the body used to perform the task. However, it is unknown whether the AON is also lateralized when watching another person perform an action. In this study, we use fNIRS to measure brain activity over the left and right cortex while participants completed actions with their left and right hands and watched an actor complete action with their left and right hands. We show that while activation is lateralized when the participants themselves are moving, brain lateralization is not affected by the side of the body when the participant is observing another person's action. In addition, we demonstrate that individual differences in hand preference and dexterity between the right and left hands are related to brain lateralization patterns.

Autonomic nervous system functioning in early childhood: Responses to cognitive and negatively valenced emotional challenges.

Although autonomic nervous system (ANS) functioning is "context-dependent," few studies examined children's normative sympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic responses to distinct challenges in early childhood years. Examining children's ANS responsivity to distinct challenges is important for understanding normative autonomic responses toward everyday life stressors and identifying paradigms that effectively elicit a "stress response." We examined children's (N = 278) sympathetic (preejection period [PEP]) and parasympathetic (respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA]) responses to cognitive (i.e., problem-solving and cognitive control) and negatively valenced emotional (i.e., blocked goal and unfairness) challenges in preschool, kindergarten, and grade 1. Children, on average, demonstrated parasympathetic inhibition (RSA withdrawal) in response to all challenges but the magnitude of these responses depended on the task. Children showed sympathetic activation (PEP shortening) toward the problem-solving task at each assessment and there was no sample-level change in the magnitude of this response over time. Children showed greater sympathetic responsivity toward the cognitive control task over time, with evidence for a sympathetic activation response only in grade 1. Children experienced sympathetic inhibition (PEP lengthening) toward the unfairness tasks but did not experience significant sympathetic responsivity toward the blocked goal tasks. Parasympathetic responsivity to most challenges were modestly stable but there was no stability in sympathetic responsivity across time.