The involvement of the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling cascade in fibrosis progression and its therapeutic targeting by relaxin.

Organ scarring, referred to as fibrosis, results from a failed wound-healing response to chronic tissue injury and is characterised by the aberrant accumulation of various extracellular matrix (ECM) components. Once established, fibrosis is recognised as a hallmark of stiffened and dysfunctional tissues, hence, various fibrosis-related diseases collectively contribute to high morbidity and mortality in developed countries. Despite this, these diseases are ineffectively treated by currently-available medications. The pro-fibrotic cytokine, transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß1, has emerged as the master regulator of fibrosis progression, owing to its ability to promote various factors and processes that facilitate rapid ECM synthesis and deposition, whilst negating ECM degradation. TGF-ß1 signal transduction is tightly controlled by canonical (Smad-dependent) and non-canonical (MAP kinase- and Rho-associated protein kinase-dependent) intracellular protein activity, whereas its pro-fibrotic actions can also be facilitated by the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway. This review outlines the pathological sequence of events and contributing roles of TGF-ß1 in the progression of fibrosis, and how the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway contributes to tissue repair in acute disease settings, but to fibrosis and related tissue dysfunction in synergy with TGF-ß1 in chronic diseases. It also outlines the anti-fibrotic and related signal transduction mechanisms of the hormone, relaxin, that are mediated via its negative modulation of TGF-ß1 and Wnt/ß-catenin signaling, but through the promotion of Wnt/ß-catenin activity in acute disease settings. Collectively, this highlights that the crosstalk between TGF-ß1 signal transduction and the Wnt/ß-catenin cascade may provide a therapeutic target that can be exploited to broadly treat and reverse established fibrosis.

The role of G protein-coupled receptor kinases in GLP-1R ß-arrestin recruitment and internalisation.

The glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor (GLP-1R) is a validated clinical target for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity. Unlike most G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), the GLP-1R undergoes an atypical mode of internalisation that does not require ß-arrestins. While differences in GLP-1R trafficking and ß-arrestin recruitment have been observed between clinically used GLP-1R agonists, the role of G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) in affecting these pathways has not been comprehensively assessed. In this study, we quantified the contribution of GRKs to agonist-mediated GLP-1R internalisation and ß-arrestin recruitment profiles using cells where endogenous ß-arrestins, or non-visual GRKs were knocked out using CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing. Our results confirm the previously established atypical ß-arrestin-independent mode of GLP-1R internalisation and revealed that GLP-1R internalisation is dependent on the expression of GRKs. Interestingly, agonist-mediated GLP-1R ß-arrestin 1 and ß-arrestin 2 recruitment were differentially affected by endogenous GRK knockout with ß-arrestin 1 recruitment more sensitive to GRK knockout than ß-arrestin 2 recruitment. Moreover, individual overexpression of GRK2, GRK3, GRK5 or GRK6 in a newly generated GRK2/3/4/5/6 HEK293 cells, rescued agonist-mediated ß-arrestin 1 recruitment and internalisation profiles to similar levels, suggesting that there is no specific GRK isoform that drives these pathways. This study advances mechanistic understanding of agonist-mediated GLP-1R internalisation and provides novel insights into how GRKs may fine-tune GLP-1R signalling.

Engineering of a Biologically Active Glycosylated Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Analogue.

Glucagon-like peptide receptor (GLP-1R) agonists (e.g., semaglutide, liraglutide, etc.) are efficient treatment options for people with type 2 diabetes and obesity. The manufacturing method to produce semaglutide, a blockbuster GLP-1 drug on the market, involves multistep synthesis. The large peptide has a hydrophobic fatty acid side chain that makes it sparingly soluble, and its handling, purification, and large-scale production difficult. The growing demand for semaglutide that the manufacturer is not capable of addressing immediately triggered a worldwide shortage. Thus, we have developed a potential alternative analogue to semaglutide by replacing the hydrophobic fatty acid with a hydrophilic human complex-type biantennary oligosaccharide. Our novel glycoGLP-1 analogue was isolated in an ∼10-fold higher yield compared with semaglutide. Importantly, our glycoGLP-1 analogue possessed a similar GLP-1R activation potency to semaglutide and was biologically active in vivo in reducing glucose levels to a similar degree as semaglutide.

Glycosylation Improves the Proteolytic Stability of Exenatide.

Exenatide was the first marketed GLP-1 receptor agonist for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Modification to the chemical structure or the formulation has the potential to increase the stability of exenatide. We introduced human complex-type sialyloligosaccharide to exenatide at the native Asn28 position. The synthesis was achieved using both solid phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) and Omniligase-1-mediated chemoenzymatic ligation. The results demonstrate that glycosylation increases the proteolytic stability of exenatide while retaining its full biological activity.

The roles of RGS proteins in cardiometabolic disease.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the most prominent receptors on the surface of the cell and play a central role in the regulation of cardiac and metabolic functions. GPCRs transmit extracellular stimuli to the interior of the cells by activating one or more heterotrimeric G proteins. The duration and intensity of G protein-mediated signalling are tightly controlled by a large array of intracellular mediators, including the regulator of G protein signalling (RGS) proteins. RGS proteins selectively promote the GTPase activity of a subset of Gα subunits, thus serving as negative regulators in a pathway-dependent manner. In the current review, we summarise the involvement of RGS proteins in cardiometabolic function with a focus on their tissue distribution, mechanisms of action and dysregulation under various disease conditions. We also discuss the potential therapeutic applications for targeting RGS proteins in treating cardiometabolic conditions and current progress in developing RGS modulators.

Understanding VPAC receptor family peptide binding and selectivity.

The vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) receptors are key regulators of neurological processes. Despite recent structural data, a comprehensive understanding of peptide binding and selectivity among different subfamily receptors is lacking. Here, we determine structures of active, Gs-coupled, VIP-VPAC1R, PACAP27-VPAC1R, and PACAP27-PAC1R complexes. Cryo-EM structural analyses and molecular dynamics simulations (MDSs) reveal fewer stable interactions between VPAC1R and VIP than for PACAP27, more extensive dynamics of VIP interaction with extracellular loop 3, and receptor-dependent differences in interactions of conserved N-terminal peptide residues with the receptor core. MD of VIP modelled into PAC1R predicts more transient VIP-PAC1R interactions in the receptor core, compared to VIP-VPAC1R, which may underlie the selectivity of VIP for VPAC1R over PAC1R. Collectively, our work improves molecular understanding of peptide engagement with the PAC1R and VPAC1R that may benefit the development of novel selective agonists.

Targeting VIP and PACAP Receptor Signaling: New Insights into Designing Drugs for the PACAP Subfamily of Receptors.

Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Peptide (PACAP) and Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) are neuropeptides involved in a diverse array of physiological and pathological processes through activating the PACAP subfamily of class B1 G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs): VIP receptor 1 (VPAC1R), VIP receptor 2 (VPAC2R), and PACAP type I receptor (PAC1R). VIP and PACAP share nearly 70% amino acid sequence identity, while their receptors PAC1R, VPAC1R, and VPAC2R share 60% homology in the transmembrane regions of the receptor. PACAP binds with high affinity to all three receptors, while VIP binds with high affinity to VPAC1R and VPAC2R, and has a thousand-fold lower affinity for PAC1R compared to PACAP. Due to the wide distribution of VIP and PACAP receptors in the body, potential therapeutic applications of drugs targeting these receptors, as well as expected undesired side effects, are numerous. Designing selective therapeutics targeting these receptors remains challenging due to their structural similarities. This review discusses recent discoveries on the molecular mechanisms involved in the selectivity and signaling of the PACAP subfamily of receptors, and future considerations for therapeutic targeting.

Granzyme K initiates IL-6 and IL-8 release from epithelial cells by activating protease-activated receptor 2.

Granzyme K (GzmK) is a tryptic member of the granzyme family of chymotrypsin-like serine proteases produced by cells of the immune system. Previous studies have indicated that GzmK activates protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1) enhancing activation of monocytes and wound healing in endothelial cells. Here, we show using peptides and full length proteins that GzmK and, to a lesser extent the related protease GzmA, are capable of activating PAR1 and PAR2. These cleavage events occur at the canonical arginine P1 residue and involve exosite interactions between protease and receptor. Despite cleaving PAR2 at the same point as trypsin, GzmK does not induce a classical Ca2+ flux but instead activates a distinct signalling cascade, involving recruitment of ß-arrestin and phosphorylation of ERK. In epithelial A549 cells, PAR2 activation by GzmK results in the release of inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-8. These data suggest that during an immune response GzmK acts as a pro-inflammatory regulator, rather than as a cytotoxin.

Implications of ligand-receptor binding kinetics on GLP-1R signalling.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest class of membrane proteins and in recent years there has been a growing appreciation of the importance in understanding temporal aspects of GPCR behaviour, including the kinetics of ligand binding and downstream receptor mediated signalling. Class B1 GPCRs are activated by peptide agonists and are validated therapeutic targets for numerous diseases. However, the kinetics of ligand binding and how this is linked to downstream activation of signalling cascades is not routinely assessed in development of peptide agonists for this receptor class. The glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) is a prototypical class B1 GPCR and a validated target for treatment of global health burdens, including type 2 diabetes and obesity. In this study we examined the kinetics of different steps in GLP-1R activation and subsequent cAMP production mediated by a series of GLP-1R peptide agonists, including the ligand-receptor interaction, ligand-receptor-mediated G protein engagement and conformational change and cAMP production. Our results revealed GLP-1R peptide agonist dissociation kinetics (Koff), but not association kinetics (Kon), were positively correlated with the onset of receptor-G protein coupling/conformational change, onset of cAMP production and duration of cAMP signalling. Thus, this study advances the understanding of molecular events that couple GLP-1R ligand binding to intracellular signaling, with the findings likely to have implications for mechanistic understanding of agonist action at other related class B1 GPCRs.

Dynamics of GLP-1R peptide agonist engagement are correlated with kinetics of G protein activation.

The glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) has broad physiological roles and is a validated target for treatment of metabolic disorders. Despite recent advances in GLP-1R structure elucidation, detailed mechanistic understanding of how different peptides generate profound differences in G protein-mediated signalling is still lacking. Here we combine cryo-electron microscopy, molecular dynamics simulations, receptor mutagenesis and pharmacological assays, to interrogate the mechanism and consequences of GLP-1R binding to four peptide agonists; glucagon-like peptide-1, oxyntomodulin, exendin-4 and exendin-P5. These data reveal that distinctions in peptide N-terminal interactions and dynamics with the GLP-1R transmembrane domain are reciprocally associated with differences in the allosteric coupling to G proteins. In particular, transient interactions with residues at the base of the binding cavity correlate with enhanced kinetics for G protein activation, providing a rationale for differences in G protein-mediated signalling efficacy from distinct agonists.

Structural and functional diversity among agonist-bound states of the GLP-1 receptor.

Recent advances in G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) structural elucidation have strengthened previous hypotheses that multidimensional signal propagation mediated by these receptors depends, in part, on their conformational mobility; however, the relationship between receptor function and static structures is inherently uncertain. Here, we examine the contribution of peptide agonist conformational plasticity to activation of the glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor (GLP-1R), an important clinical target. We use variants of the peptides GLP-1 and exendin-4 (Ex4) to explore the interplay between helical propensity near the agonist N terminus and the ability to bind to and activate the receptor. Cryo-EM analysis of a complex involving an Ex4 analog, the GLP-1R and Gs heterotrimer revealed two receptor conformers with distinct modes of peptide-receptor engagement. Our functional and structural data, along with molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, suggest that receptor conformational dynamics associated with flexibility of the peptide N-terminal activation domain may be a key determinant of agonist efficacy.

Chemical Synthesis and Characterization of a Nonfibrillating Glycoglucagon.

The current commercially available glucagon formulations for the treatment of severe hypoglycemia must be reconstituted immediately prior to use, owing to the susceptibility of glucagon to fibrillation and aggregation in an aqueous solution. This results in the inconvenience of handling, misuse, and wastage of this drug. To address these issues, we synthesized a glycosylated glucagon analogue in which the 25th residue (Trp) was replaced with a cysteine (Cys) and a Br-disialyloligosaccharide was conjugated at the Cys thiol moiety. The resulting analogue, glycoglucagon, is a highly potent full agonist at the glucagon receptor. Importantly, glycoglucagon exhibits markedly reduced propensity for fibrillation and enhanced thermal and metabolic stability. This novel analogue is thus a valuable lead for producing stable liquid glucagon formulations that will improve patient compliance and minimize wastage.

AM833 Is a Novel Agonist of Calcitonin Family G Protein-Coupled Receptors: Pharmacological Comparison with Six Selective and Nonselective Agonists.

Obesity and associated comorbidities are a major health burden, and novel therapeutics to help treat obesity are urgently needed. There is increasing evidence that targeting the amylin receptors (AMYRs), heterodimers of the calcitonin G protein-coupled receptor (CTR) and receptor activity-modifying proteins, improves weight control and has the potential to act additively with other treatments such as glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists. Recent data indicate that AMYR agonists, which can also independently activate the CTR, may have improved efficacy for treating obesity, even though selective activation of CTRs is not efficacious. AM833 (cagrilintide) is a novel lipidated amylin analog that is undergoing clinical trials as a nonselective AMYR and CTR agonist. In the current study, we have investigated the pharmacology of AM833 across 25 endpoints and compared this peptide with AMYR selective and nonselective lipidated analogs (AM1213 and AM1784), and the clinically used peptide agonists pramlintide (AMYR selective) and salmon CT (nonselective). We also profiled human CT and rat amylin as prototypical selective agonists of CTR and AMYRs, respectively. Our results demonstrate that AM833 has a unique pharmacological profile across diverse measures of receptor binding, activation, and regulation. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: AM833 is a novel nonselective agonist of calcitonin family receptors that has demonstrated efficacy for the treatment of obesity in phase 2 clinical trials. This study demonstrates that AM833 has a unique pharmacological profile across diverse measures of receptor binding, activation, and regulation when compared with other selective and nonselective calcitonin receptor and amylin receptor agonists. The present data provide mechanistic insight into the actions of AM833.

Differential GLP-1R Binding and Activation by Peptide and Non-peptide Agonists.

Peptide drugs targeting class B1 G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) can treat multiple diseases; however, there remains substantial interest in the development of orally delivered non-peptide drugs. Here, we reveal unexpected overlap between signaling and regulation of the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor by the non-peptide agonist PF 06882961 and GLP-1 that was not observed for another compound, CHU-128. Compounds from these patent series, including PF 06882961, are currently in clinical trials for treatment of type 2 diabetes. High-resolution cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures reveal that the binding sites for PF 06882961 and GLP-1 substantially overlap, whereas CHU-128 adopts a unique binding mode with a more open receptor conformation at the extracellular face. Structural differences involving extensive water-mediated hydrogen bond networks could be correlated to functional data to understand how PF 06882961, but not CHU-128, can closely mimic the pharmacological properties of GLP-1. These findings will facilitate rational structure-based discovery of non-peptide agonists targeting class B GPCRs.

Evaluation of biased agonism mediated by dual agonists of the GLP-1 and glucagon receptors.

Metabolic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and their comorbidities have converged as one of the most serious health concerns on a global scale. Selective glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor (GLP-1R) agonists are one of the major therapeutics for type 2 diabetes and obesity. Polypharmacological approaches that enable modulation of multiple metabolic targets in a single drug have emerged as a potential avenue to improve therapeutic outcomes. Among numerous peptides under development are those targeting the GLP-1R and either the glucagon receptor (GCGR), glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide receptor (GIPR) or all 3 receptors, as dual- or tri- peptide agonists. Despite many of them entering into clinical trials, current development has been based on only a limited understanding of the spectrum of potential pharmacological properties of these ligands beyond binding selectivity. In the present study, we examined the potential for agonists that target both GLP-1R and GCGR to exhibit biased agonism, comparing activity across proximal activation of Gs protein, cAMP accumulation, pERK1/2 and ß-arrestin recruitment. Three distinct dual agonists that have different relative cAMP production potency for GLP-1R versus GCGR, "peptide 15", MEDI0382 and SAR425899, and one triagonist of the GLP-1R, GCGR and GIPR were examined. We demonstrated that all novel peptides have distinct biased agonism profiles relative to either of the cognate agonists of the receptors, and to each other. This is an important feature of the pharmacology of this drug class that needs to be considered alongside selectivity, bioavailability and pharmacokinetics for rational optimization of new therapeutics.

Pharmacological characterization of mono-, dual- and tri-peptidic agonists at GIP and GLP-1 receptors.

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP) is an incretin hormone with physiological roles in adipose tissue, the central nervous system and bone metabolism. While selective ligands for GIP receptor (GIPR) have not been advanced for disease treatment, dual and triple agonists of GIPR, in conjunction with that of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucagon receptors, are currently in clinical trials, with an expectation of enhanced efficacy beyond that of GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonist monotherapy for diabetic patients. Consequently, it is important to understand the pharmacological behavior of such drugs. In this study, we have explored signaling pathway specificity and the potential for biased agonism of mono-, dual- and tri-agonists of GIPR using human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells recombinantly expressing human GIPR or GLP-1R. Compared to GIP(1-42), the GIPR mono-agonists Pro3GIP and Lys3GIP are biased towards ERK1/2 phosphorylation (pERK1/2) relative to cAMP accumulation at GIPR, whereas the triple agonist at GLP-1R/GCGR/GIPR is biased towards pERK1/2 relative to ß-arrestin2 recruitment. Moreover, the dual GIPR/GLP-1R agonist, LY3298176, is biased towards pERK1/2 relative to cAMP accumulation at both GIPR and GLP-1R compared to their respective endogenous ligands. These data reveal novel pharmacological properties of potential therapeutic agents that may impact on diversity in clinical responses.

Structural basis of Gs and Gi recognition by the human glucagon receptor.

Class B G protein-coupled receptors, an important class of therapeutic targets, signal mainly through the Gs class of heterotrimeric G proteins, although they do display some promiscuity in G protein binding. Using cryo-electron microscopy, we determined the structures of the human glucagon receptor (GCGR) bound to glucagon and distinct classes of heterotrimeric G proteins, Gs or Gi1 These two structures adopt a similar open binding cavity to accommodate Gs and Gi1 The Gs binding selectivity of GCGR is explained by a larger interaction interface, but there are specific interactions that affect Gi more than Gs binding. Conformational differences in the receptor intracellular loops were found to be key selectivity determinants. These distinctions in transducer engagement were supported by mutagenesis and functional studies.

Toward a Structural Understanding of Class B GPCR Peptide Binding and Activation.

Class B G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are important therapeutic targets for major diseases. Here, we present structures of peptide and Gs-bound pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide, PAC1 receptor, and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), (CRF1) receptor. Together with recently solved structures, these provide coverage of the major class B GPCR subfamilies. Diverse orientations of the extracellular domain to the receptor core in different receptors are at least partially dependent on evolutionary conservation in the structure and nature of peptide interactions. Differences in peptide interactions to the receptor core also influence the interlinked TM2-TM1-TM6/ECL3/TM7 domain, and this is likely important in their diverse signaling. However, common conformational reorganization of ECL2, linked to reorganization of ICL2, modulates G protein contacts. Comparison between receptors reveals ICL2 as a key domain forming dynamic G protein interactions in a receptor- and ligand-specific manner. This work advances our understanding of class B GPCR activation and Gs coupling.

Activation of the GLP-1 receptor by a non-peptidic agonist.

Class B G-protein-coupled receptors are major targets for the treatment of chronic diseases, including diabetes and obesity1. Structures of active receptors reveal peptide agonists engage deep within the receptor core, leading to an outward movement of extracellular loop 3 and the tops of transmembrane helices 6 and 7, an inward movement of transmembrane helix 1, reorganization of extracellular loop 2 and outward movement of the intracellular side of transmembrane helix 6, resulting in G-protein interaction and activation2-6. Here we solved the structure of a non-peptide agonist, TT-OAD2, bound to the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor. Our structure identified an unpredicted non-peptide agonist-binding pocket in which reorganization of extracellular loop 3 and transmembrane helices 6 and 7 manifests independently of direct ligand interaction within the deep transmembrane domain pocket. TT-OAD2 exhibits biased agonism, and kinetics of G-protein activation and signalling that are distinct from peptide agonists. Within the structure, TT-OAD2 protrudes beyond the receptor core to interact with the lipid or detergent, providing an explanation for the distinct activation kinetics that may contribute to the clinical efficacy of this compound series. This work alters our understanding of the events that drive the activation of class B receptors.

Granzyme a in Chikungunya and other arboviral infections

Granzyme A (GzmA) is secreted by cytotoxic lymphocytes and has traditionally been viewed as a mediator of cell death. However, a growing body of data suggests the physiological role of GzmA is promotion of inflammation. Here, we show that GzmA is significantly elevated in the sera of chikungunya virus (CHIKV) patients and that GzmA levels correlated with viral loads and disease scores in these patients. Serum GzmA levels were also elevated in CHIKV mouse models, with NK cells the likely source. Infection of mice deficient in type I interferon responses with CHIKV, Zika virus, or dengue virus resulted in high levels of circulating GzmA. We also show that subcutaneous injection of enzymically active recombinant mouse GzmA was able to mediate inflammation, both locally at the injection site as well as at a distant site. Protease activated receptors (PARs) may represent targets for GzmA, and we show that treatment with PAR antagonist ameliorated GzmA- and CHIKV-mediated inflammation.