Population Pharmacokinetic Modeling and Exposure-Response Analysis for the Antibody-Drug Conjugate Enfortumab Vedotin in Locally Advanced or Metastatic Urothelial Carcinoma.

Enfortumab vedotin is a fully human monoclonal antibody directed to Nectin-4 and conjugated to monomethyl auristatin E (MMAE), approved for treatment of previously treated locally advanced or metastatic urothelial carcinoma (mUC). This population analysis characterized pharmacokinetics of enfortumab vedotin and free (unconjugated) MMAE, identified covariates affecting pharmacokinetics, and evaluated weight-based dosing for enfortumab vedotin. Exposure-response analyses characterized relationships between enfortumab vedotin and free MMAE exposures and efficacy/safety endpoints. Data from 748 patients with locally advanced or mUC in 5 clinical studies were analyzed using nonlinear mixed-effects modeling. Patients received enfortumab vedotin 0.50-1.25 mg/kg every 3 weeks or on days 1, 8, and 15 of a 28-day cycle. Relevant covariates retained in final models were evaluated for clinical relevance to enfortumab vedotin and free MMAE exposures. Although some covariates produced differences in exposure, the magnitude of changes was not clinically meaningful. Simulations indicated weight-based dosing yielded more consistent exposures across body weight groups vs. a hypothetical fixed-dose regimen of enfortumab vedotin 95 mg (calculated for median body weight, 75 kg). Exposure-response analysis showed average enfortumab vedotin concentrations were not a statistically significant predictor of overall survival (hazard ratio 0.91, 95% confidence interval: 0.72-1.14; P = 0.41); all exposure quartiles had a greater median overall survival than chemotherapy (11.0-12.6 vs. 9.0 months). Enfortumab vedotin and free MMAE exposures were statistically significant predictors of grade ≥ 3 treatment-related adverse events (both P < 0.0001). This analysis supports enfortumab vedotin 1.25 mg/kg on days 1, 8, and 15 of a 28-day cycle.

A Population Pharmacokinetic Assessment of the Effect of Food on Selumetinib in Patients with Neurofibromatosis Type 1-Related Plexiform Neurofibromas and Healthy Volunteers.

Selumetinib is clinically used for pediatric patients with neurofibromatosis type 1 and symptomatic, inoperable plexiform neurofibromas. Until recently, selumetinib had to be taken twice daily, after 2 hours of fasting and followed by 1 hour of fasting, which could be inconvenient. This population analysis evaluated the effect of low- and high-fat meals on the pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters of selumetinib and its active metabolite N-desmethyl selumetinib. The dataset comprised 511 subjects from 15 clinical trials who received ≥1 dose of selumetinib and provided ≥1 measurable postdose concentration of selumetinib and N-desmethyl selumetinib. A 2-compartment model with sequential 0- and 1st-order delayed absorption and 1st-order elimination adequately described selumetinib PK characteristics. A 1-compartment model reasonably described N-desmethyl selumetinib PK characteristics over time simultaneously with selumetinib. Selumetinib geometric mean area under the concentration-time curve ratio (1-sided 90% confidence interval [CI] lower bound) was 76.9% (73.3%) with a low-fat meal and 79.3% (76.3%) with a high-fat meal versus fasting. The lower bound of the 1-sided 90% CI demonstrated a difference of <30% between fed and fasted states. Considering the flat exposure-response relationship within the dose range (20-30 mg/m2), the observed range of exposure, and the variability in the SPRINT trial, this was not considered clinically relevant.

Physiologically based pharmacokinetic model to predict drug-drug interactions with the antibody-drug conjugate enfortumab vedotin.

Enfortumab vedotin is an antibody-drug conjugate (ADC) comprised of a Nectin-4-directed antibody and monomethyl auristatin E (MMAE), which is primarily eliminated through P-glycoprotein (P-gp)-mediated excretion and cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4)-mediated metabolism. A physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model was developed to predict effects of combined P-gp with CYP3A4 inhibitor/inducer (ketoconazole/rifampin) on MMAE exposure when coadministered with enfortumab vedotin and study enfortumab vedotin with CYP3A4 (midazolam) and P-gp (digoxin) substrate exposure. A PBPK model was built for enfortumab vedotin and unconjugated MMAE using the PBPK simulator ADC module. A similar model was developed with brentuximab vedotin, an ADC with the same valine-citrulline-MMAE linker as enfortumab vedotin, for MMAE drug-drug interaction (DDI) verification using clinical data. The DDI simulation predicted a less-than-2-fold increase in MMAE exposure with enfortumab vedotin plus ketoconazole (MMAE geometric mean ratio [GMR] for maximum concentration [Cmax], 1.15; GMR for area under the time-concentration curve from time 0 to last quantifiable concentration [AUClast], 1.38). Decreased MMAE exposure above 50% but below 80% was observed with enfortumab vedotin plus rifampin (MMAE GMR Cmax, 0.72; GMR AUClast, 0.47). No effect of enfortumab vedotin on midazolam or digoxin systemic exposure was predicted. Results suggest that combination enfortumab vedotin, P-gp, and a CYP3A4 inhibitor may result in increased MMAE exposure and patients should be monitored for potential adverse effects. Combination P-gp and a CYP3A4 inducer may result in decreased MMAE exposure. No exposure change is expected for CYP3A4 or P-gp substrates when combined with enfortumab vedotin.ClinicalTrials.gov identifier Not applicable.

Design and evaluation of a remote synchronous gamified mathematics teaching activity that integrates multi-representational scaffolding and a mind tool for gamified learning.

Gamified learning is an instructional strategy that motivates students to learn, and the use of multiple representations assists learning by promoting students' thinking and advanced mathematical problem-solving skills. In particular, emergency distance learning caused by the COVID-19 pandemic may result in a lack of motivation and effectiveness in learning. This study designed an online gamified learning activity incorporating multi-representational scaffolding and compared the differences in the learning achievement and motivation for the gamified activity and general synchronous distance learning. In addition, for the group that conducted the gamified learning activity, we measured the participants' flow, anxiety, and emotion during the activity. A total of 36 high school students participated in the experiment. The results indicated that the gamified learning activity was not significantly effective in terms of enhancing learning achievement. In terms of learning motivation, a significant decrease in motivation was found for the group using general synchronous learning, while a significant increase in motivation was found for the group using synchronous gamified learning. This indicates that despite the negative impact of the pandemic on learning, gamified learning still enhances students' learning motivation. The results of flow, anxiety, and emotion showed that the participants had a positive and engaged experience. Participants provided feedback that the multi-representational scaffolding facilitates learning.

Risk-Based Pharmacokinetic and Drug-Drug Interaction Characterization of Antibody-Drug Conjugates in Oncology Clinical Development: An International Consortium for Innovation and Quality in Pharmaceutical Development Perspective.

Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) represent a rapidly evolving area of drug development and hold significant promise. To date, nine ADCs have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). These conjugates combine the target specificity of monoclonal antibodies with the anticancer activity of small-molecule therapeutics (also referred to as payload). Due to the complex structure, three analytes, namely ADC conjugate, total antibody, and unconjugated payload, are typically quantified during drug development; however, the benefits of measuring all three analytes at later stages of clinical development are not clear. The cytotoxic payloads, upon release from the ADC, are considered to behave like small molecules. Given the relatively high potency and low systemic exposure of cytotoxic payloads, drug-drug interaction (DDI) considerations for ADCs might be different from traditional small molecule therapeutics. The International Consortium for Innovation and Quality in Pharmaceutical Development (IQ Consortium) convened an ADC working group to create an IQ ADC database that includes 26 ADCs with six unique payloads. The analysis of the ADC data in the IQ database, as well as nine approved ADCs, supports the strategy of pharmacokinetic characterization of all three analytes in early-phase development and progressively minimizing the number of analytes to be measured in the late-phase studies. The systemic concentrations of unconjugated payload are usually too low to serve as a DDI perpetrator; however, the potential for unconjugated payloads as a victim still exists. A data-driven and risk-based decision tree was developed to guide the assessment of a circulating payload as a victim of DDI.

Capturing the Magic Bullet: Pharmacokinetic Principles and Modeling of Antibody-Drug Conjugates.

Over the past two decades, antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) have emerged as a promising class of drugs for cancer therapy and have expanded to nononcology fields such as inflammatory diseases, atherosclerosis, and bacteremia. Eight ADCs are currently approved by FDA for clinical applications, with more novel ADCs under clinical development. Compared with traditional chemotherapy, ADCs combine the target specificity of antibodies with chemotherapeutic capabilities of cytotoxic drugs. The benefits include reduced systemic toxicity and enhanced therapeutic index for patients. However, the heterogeneous structures of ADCs and their dynamic changes following administration create challenges in their development. The understanding of ADC pharmacokinetics (PK) is crucial for the optimization of clinical dosing regimens when translating from animal to human. In addition, it contributes to the optimization of dose selection and clinical monitoring with regard to safety and efficacy. This manuscript reviews the PK characteristics of ADCs and summarizes the diverse approaches for PK modeling that can be used to evaluate an ADC at the preclinical and clinical stages to support their successful development. Despite the numerous available options, fit-for-purpose modeling approaches for the PK and PD of ADCs should be critically planned and well-thought-out to adequately support the development of an ADC.

EV-101: A Phase I Study of Single-Agent Enfortumab Vedotin in Patients With Nectin-4-Positive Solid Tumors, Including Metastatic Urothelial Carcinoma.

PURPOSE: To assess the safety/tolerability and antitumor activity of enfortumab vedotin (EV), a novel investigational antibody-drug conjugate that delivers the microtubule-disrupting agent, monomethyl auristatin E, to cells that express Nectin-4. METHODS: EV-101 is a phase I dose escalation/expansion study that enrolled patients with Nectin-4-expressing solid tumors (eg, metastatic urothelial carcinoma [mUC]) who progressed on ≥ 1 prior chemotherapy regimen and/or programmed death-1 receptor/programmed death ligand-1 [PD-(L)1] inhibitor, including a cohort of patients with mUC who received prior anti-PD-(L)1 therapy. Patients received escalating doses of EV up to 1.25 mg/kg on days 1, 8, and 15 of every 28-day cycle. Primary objectives were evaluation of safety/tolerability and pharmacokinetics; antitumor activity was a secondary objective. RESULTS: Enrolled patients with mUC (n = 155) were heavily pretreated, with 96% having prior platinum-based chemotherapy and 29% receiving ≥ 3 lines of prior treatment. Maximum tolerated dose of EV was not established; however, the recommended phase II dose was identified as 1.25 mg/kg. Rash, peripheral neuropathy, fatigue, alopecia, and nausea were the most common treatment-related adverse events (TRAEs); the most common TRAEs were grade 1-2 in severity. Among the 112 patients with mUC treated with single-agent EV 1.25 mg/kg, the investigator-assessed confirmed objective response rate (ORR) was 43%, and duration of response was 7.4 months. Median overall survival (OS) was 12.3 months, and the OS rate at 1 year was 51.8%. Similar ORR and estimated median OS were observed in patients ≥ 75 years of age with and without prior anti-PD-(L)1 treatment, liver metastases, or upper-tract disease. CONCLUSION: Single-agent EV was generally well tolerated and provided clinically meaningful and durable responses in patients with mUC; survival data are encouraging. A pivotal phase II and a confirmatory phase III study are ongoing.

Population Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic Analysis of Intravenous Zanamivir in Healthy Adults and Hospitalized Adult and Pediatric Subjects With Influenza.

Zanamivir is a potent and highly selective inhibitor of influenza neuraminidase in which the inhibition of this enzyme prevents the virus from infecting other cells and specifically prevents release of the new virion from the host cell membrane. It is available as an oral powder for inhalation and intravenous formulations. The current population pharmacokinetic model based on data from eight studies of subjects treated with the intravenous formulation (125 healthy adults and 533 hospitalized adult and pediatric subjects with suspected or confirmed influenza) suggested a decreased zanamivir clearance in pediatric and renal impairment adult subjects. It also indicates that b.i.d. dosing is necessary to keep the exposure in influenza infected subjects above the 90% inhibitory concentration values of recently circulating viruses over the dosing interval. In the exposure-response analysis (phases II and III studies), no apparent relationship was found between zanamivir exposure and clinically relevant pharmacodynamic end points.

A Dyadic Test of the Association Between Trait Self-Control and Romantic Relationship Satisfaction.

Previous research has demonstrated that trait self-control is related to a range of positive romantic relationship processes, suggesting that trait self-control should be positively and robustly linked to relationship satisfaction in both partners in a romantic relationship. However, the existing empirical evidence is limited and mixed, especially regarding partner effects (i.e., the effect of one's self-control on the partner's relationship satisfaction). With three datasets of heterosexual couples (S1: N = 195 newlyweds, longitudinal; S2: N = 249 couples who transition into first parenthood, longitudinal; S3: N = 929 couples, cross-sectional), the present pre-registered studies examined: (1) the dyadic associations between trait self-control and relationship satisfaction both cross-sectionally and longitudinally, and (2) whether these effects hold when controlling for both partners' relationship commitment. The results indicated a cross-sectional positive actor effect, some support for a positive cross-sectional partner effect, and only little support for a longitudinal actor (but not partner) effect. After controlling for relationship commitment, all effects of trait self-control on satisfaction diminished except for a longitudinal actor effect among women in Study 2. Potential explanations for the current results, and implications for theory and practice, are discussed.

Effects of early adversity on the brain: Larger-volume anterior cingulate cortex in AIDS orphans.

Multiple studies have revealed that adolescent AIDS orphans have more psychosocial problems than healthy adolescents. However, little is known about whether and how the brain structures of adolescent AIDS orphans differ from those of healthy adolescents. Here, we used magnetic resonance imaging to compare adolescent AIDS orphans reared in institutions (N = 20) with a sex- and age-matched group of healthy adolescents reared in families (N = 20) in China using a voxel-based morphometry analysis. First, we found that both total gray- and white-matter volumes did not differ between groups. Second, after correcting for age, sex, and total gray-matter volume, the AIDS orphan group demonstrated smaller hippocampal volumes, larger anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) volumes, and no differences in the amygdala. Third, a whole-brain analysis identified higher gray-matter volume of the ACC in the AIDS orphan group than in the control group. The preliminary findings of this study highlight the need for future research to confirm the sensitivity of the hippocampus and ACC to early adversity.

Integration of modeling and simulation to support changes to ondansetron dosing following a randomized, double-blind, placebo-, and active-controlled thorough QT study.

Prolongation of the QT interval has been observed with ondansetron and other members of the 5-HT3 antagonist class. This is the first thorough QTc study of ondansetron conducted in accordance with ICH E14 guidelines, designed to investigate the effect of single intravenous (IV) doses of ondansetron on cardiac conduction compared to placebo and a positive control, moxifloxacin, in healthy subjects. Statistical analysis of dose-response showed the maximum mean difference in QTcF, compared to placebo and corrected for baseline (ddQTcF), was less than 10 milliseconds (ms) after an 8 mg IV dose and approximately 20 ms after the 32 mg dose, each infused over 15 minutes. The concentration-response (Cp-ddQTcF) model resulted in similar predictions for the 8 and 32 mg and was used to predict the maximum mean ddQTcF (upper 90% CI bound) of 9.2 (11.2) ms for 16 mg IV. As a result, single IV doses of ondansetron greater than 16 mg should no longer be used. Adult cancer patients, under 75 years, may receive up to a maximum initial 15-minute IV dose of 16 mg, prior to chemotherapy, followed by 2 additional IV or IM doses of 8 mg for the management of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV).

Computational model for the regulation of extracellular ATP and adenosine in airway epithelia.

Extracellular nucleotides are key components of the signaling network regulating airway clearance. They are released by the epithelium into the airway surface liquid (ASL) to stimulate cilia beating activity, mucus secretion and airway hydration. Understanding the factors affecting their availability for purinoceptor activation is an important step toward the development of new therapies for obstructive lung diseases. This chapter presents a mathematical model developed to gain predictive insights into the regulation of ASL nucleotide concentrations on human airway epithelia. The parameters were estimated from experimental data collected on polarized primary cultures of human nasal and bronchial epithelial cells. This model reproduces major experimental observations: (1) the independence of steady-state nucleotide concentrations on ASL height, (2) the impact of selective ectonucleotidase inhibitors on their steady-state ASL concentrations, (3) the changes in ASL composition caused by mechanical stress mimicking normal breathing, (4) and the differences in steady-state concentrations existing between nasal and bronchial epithelia. In addition, this model launched the study of nucleotide release into uncharted territories, which led to the discovery that airway epithelia release, not only ATP, but also ADP and AMP. This study shows that computational modeling, coupled to experimental validation, provides a powerful approach for the identification of key therapeutic targets for the improvement of airway clearance in obstructive respiratory diseases.

Mathematical model of nucleotide regulation on airway epithelia. Implications for airway homeostasis.

In the airways, adenine nucleotides support a complex signaling network mediating host defenses. Released by the epithelium into the airway surface liquid (ASL) layer, they regulate mucus clearance through P2 (ATP) receptors, and following surface metabolism through P1 (adenosine; Ado) receptors. The complexity of ASL nucleotide regulation provides an ideal subject for biochemical network modeling. A mathematical model was developed to integrate nucleotide release, the ectoenzymes supporting the dephosphorylation of ATP into Ado, Ado deamination into inosine (Ino), and nucleoside uptake. The model also includes ecto-adenylate kinase activity and feed-forward inhibition of Ado production by ATP and ADP. The parameters were optimized by fitting the model to experimental data for the steady-state and transient concentration profiles generated by adding ATP to polarized primary cultures of human bronchial epithelial (HBE) cells. The model captures major aspects of ATP and Ado regulation, including their >4-fold increase in concentration induced by mechanical stress mimicking normal breathing. The model also confirmed the independence of steady-state nucleotide concentrations on the ASL volume, an important regulator of airway clearance. An interactive approach between simulations and assays revealed that feed-forward inhibition is mediated by selective inhibition of ecto-5'-nucleotidase. Importantly, the model identifies ecto-adenylate kinase as a key regulator of ASL ATP and proposes novel strategies for the treatment of airway diseases characterized by impaired nucleotide-mediated clearance. These new insights into the biochemical processes supporting ASL nucleotide regulation illustrate the potential of this mathematical model for fundamental and clinical research.