Increased prevalence of germline pathogenic CHEK2 variants in individuals with pituitary adenomas.

CONTEXT: CHEK2 is a cell cycle checkpoint regulator gene with a long-established role as a clinically relevant, moderate risk breast cancer predisposition gene, with greater risk ascribed to truncating variants than missense variants. METHODS: We assessed 165 individuals with pituitary adenomas for CHEK2 variants. The study consisted of a primary cohort of 29 individuals who underwent germline and tumour whole exome sequencing, and a second, independent cohort of 136 individuals who had a targeted next-generation sequencing panel performed on both germline and tumour DNA (n=52) or germline DNA alone (n=84). RESULTS: We identified rare, coding, non-synonymous germline CHEK2 variants amongst 3/29 (10.3%) patients in our primary cohort and 5/165 (3.0%) patients overall, with affected patients having a range of hormone secretion types (prolactinoma, thyrotrophinoma, somatotrophinoma and non-functioning pituitary adenoma). No somatic variants were identified. Two variants were definitive null variants (c.1100delC, c.444+1G>A), classified as pathogenic. Two variants were missense variants (p.Asn186His, p.Thr476Met), classified as likely pathogenic. Even when considering the null variants only, the rate of CHEK2 variants was higher in our cohort compared to national control data (1.8% vs. 0.5%, P=0.049). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to suggest a role for the breast cancer predisposition gene, CHEK2, in pituitary tumorigenesis, with pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants found in 3% of patients with pituitary adenomas. As pituitary adenomas are relatively common and typically lack classical autosomal dominant family histories, risk alleles - such as these variants found in CHEK2 - might be a significant contributor to pituitary adenoma risk in the general population.

Identification of monogenic diabetes in an Australian cohort using the Exeter maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY) probability calculator and next-generation sequencing gene panel testing.

AIMS: This study aims to describe the prevalence of monogenic diabetes in an Australian referral cohort, in relation to Exeter maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY) probability calculator (EMPC) scores and next-generation sequencing with updated testing where relevant. METHODS: State-wide 5-year retrospective cohort study of individuals referred for monogenic diabetes genetic testing. RESULTS: After excluding individuals who had cascade testing for a familial variant (21) or declined research involvement (1), the final cohort comprised 40 probands. Incorporating updated testing, the final genetic result was positive (likely pathogenic/pathogenic variant) in 11/40 (27.5%), uncertain (variant of uncertain significance) in 8/40 (20%) and negative in 21/40 (52.5%) participants. Causative variants were found in GCK, HNF1A, MT-TL1 and HNF4A. Variants of uncertain significance included a novel multi-exonic GCK duplication. Amongst participants with EMPC scores ≥ 25%, a causative variant was identified in 37%. Cascade testing was positive in 9/10 tested relatives with diabetes and 0/6 tested relatives with no history of diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: Contemporary genetic testing produces a high yield of positive results in individuals with clinically suspected monogenic diabetes and their relatives with diabetes, highlighting the value of genetic testing for this condition. An EMPC score cutoff of ≥ 25% correctly yielded a positive predictive value of ≥ 25% in this multiethnic demographic. This is the first Australian study to describe EMPC scores in the Australian clinic setting, albeit a biased referral cohort. Larger studies may help characterise EMPC performance between ethnic subsets, noting differences in the expected probability of monogenic diabetes relative to type 2 diabetes.

PAM variants in patients with thyrotrophinomas, cyclical Cushing's disease and prolactinomas.

Introduction: Germline loss-of-function variants in PAM, encoding peptidylglycine α-amidating monooxygenase (PAM), were recently discovered to be enriched in conditions of pathological pituitary hypersecretion, specifically: somatotrophinoma, corticotrophinoma, and prolactinoma. PAM is the sole enzyme responsible for C-terminal amidation of peptides, and plays a role in the biosynthesis and regulation of multiple hormones, including proopiomelanocortin (POMC). Methods: We performed exome sequencing of germline and tumour DNA from 29 individuals with functioning pituitary adenomas (12 prolactinomas, 10 thyrotrophinomas, 7 cyclical Cushing's disease). An unfiltered analysis was undertaken of all PAM variants with population prevalence <5%. Results: We identified five coding, non-synonymous PAM variants of interest amongst seven individuals (six germline, one somatic). The five variants comprised four missense variants and one truncating variant, all heterozygous. Each variant had some evidence of pathogenicity based on population prevalence, conservation scores, in silico predictions and/or prior functional studies. The yield of predicted deleterious PAM variants was thus 7/29 (24%). The variants predominated in individuals with thyrotrophinomas (4/10, 40%) and cyclical Cushing's disease (2/7, 29%), compared to prolactinomas (1/12, 8%). Conclusion: This is the second study to demonstrate a high yield of suspected loss-of-function, predominantly germline, PAM variants in individuals with pathological pituitary hypersecretion. We have extended the association with corticotrophinoma to include the specific clinical entity of cyclical Cushing's disease and demonstrated a novel association between PAM variants and thyrotrophinoma. PAM variants might act as risk alleles for pituitary adenoma formation, with a possible genotype-phenotype relationship between truncating variants and altered temporal secretion of cortisol.

Cabergoline-associated valvulopathy of the tricuspid valve in the treatment of prolactinoma.

Cabergoline-associated valvulopathy (CAV) is defined by the echocardiographic triad of moderate or severe regurgitation, valvular thickening and restricted valvular motion. While it is a well-described complication of dopamine agonist therapy in Parkinson's disease, only three convincing cases of CAV have previously been described in the treatment of prolactinoma, with none involving the tricuspid valve. We describe a case of CAV affecting the tricuspid valve, ultimately resulting in the patient's death. The novel finding of CAV affecting the tricuspid valve suggests a possible link between confirmed cases of CAV and the echocardiographic surveillance studies of cabergoline-treated prolactinoma patients which have mostly demonstrated subclinical tricuspid valve changes. The risk of CAV, although small, prompts a mindful prescription of dopamine agonist therapy for prolactinomas and consideration of measures to minimise cabergoline exposure. The cumulative cabergoline doses and duration of therapy associated with CAV in published cases exceed what has been evaluated in case series and surveillance studies, underscoring the importance of case reports in understanding CAV.

Pituitary tumours: molecular and genetic aspects.

'Pituitary tumours' is an umbrella term for various tumours originating from different regions of the hypothalamic-pituitary system. The vast majority of pituitary tumours are pituitary adenomas, also recently referred to as pituitary neuroendocrine tumours. The prevalence of clinically relevant pituitary adenomas is approximately 1 in 1000; other pituitary tumours such as craniopharyngioma and pituicytoma are comparatively very rare. This review addresses the molecular and genetic aspects of pituitary adenomas. We first discuss the germline genetic variants underlying familial pituitary tumours, which account for approximately 5% of all pituitary adenoma cases. This includes variants in established pituitary adenoma/hyperplasia predisposition genes (MEN1, PRKAR1A, AIP, CDKN1B, GPR101, SDHA, SDHB, SDHC, SDHD, SDHAF2) as well as emerging genetic associations. In addition, we discuss McCune-Albright syndrome which lies between the germline and somatic pituitary tumour genes as the causative GNAS mutations are postzygotic rather than being inherited, and the condition is associated with multiglandular features due to the involvement of different cell lines rather than being limited to the pituitary. By contrast, somatic GNAS mutations contribute to sporadic acromegaly. USP8 is the only other gene where somatic driver mutations have been established in sporadic pituitary tumorigenesis. However, there are now known to be a variety of other somatic genetic and molecular changes underpinning sporadic pituitary adenomas which we review here, namely: copy number variation, molecular changes in signalling and hypoxia pathways, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, DNA repair, senescence, the immune microenvironment and epigenetics.

Dopamine agonist therapy for prolactinomas: do we need to rethink the place of surgery in prolactinoma management?

The current treatment paradigm for prolactinomas involves dopamine agonist (DA) therapy as the first-line treatment, with surgical resection reserved for cases where there is DA failure due to resistance or intolerance. This review highlights how DA therapy can be optimised to overcome its increasingly recognised pitfalls, whilst also addressing the potential for expanding the use of surgery in the management of prolactinomas. The first part of the review discusses the limitations of DA therapy, namely: DA resistance; common DA side effects; and the rare but serious DA-induced risks of cardiac valvulopathy, impulse control disorders, psychosis, CSF rhinorrhoea and tumour fibrosis. The second part of the review explores the role of surgery in prolactinoma management with reference to its current second-line position and recent calls for surgery to be considered as an alternative first-line treatment alongside DA therapy. Randomised trials comparing medical vs surgical therapy for prolactinomas are currently underway. Pending these results, a low surgical threshold approach is herein proposed, whereby DA therapy remains the default treatment for prolactinomas unless there are specific triggers to consider surgery, including concern regarding DA side effects or risks in vulnerable patients, persistent and bothersome DA side effects, emergence of any serious risks of DA therapy, expected need for long-term DA therapy, as well as the traditional indications for surgery. This approach should optimise the use of DA therapy for those who will most benefit from it, whilst instituting surgery early in others in order to minimise the cumulative burden of prolonged DA therapy.

A contemporary clinical approach to genetic testing for heritable hyperparathyroidism syndromes.

PURPOSE: The improved access and affordability of next generation sequencing has facilitated the clinical use of gene panel testing to test concurrently patients for multiple heritable hyperparathyroidism syndromes. However, there is little guidance as to which patients should be selected for gene panel testing and which genes should be included in such panels. In this review, we provide a practical approach to considering, interpreting and managing genetic testing for familial primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) syndromes and familial hypocalciuric hypercalcaemia (FHH) in patients with PTH-dependent hypercalcaemia. We discuss known genes implicated in PHPT and FHH, testing criteria and yields, pre-test counselling, laboratory considerations, and post-test management. METHODS: In addition to reviewing the literature, we conducted audits of local genetic testing data to examine the real-world yield of genetic testing in patients with PTH-dependent hypercalcaemia. RESULTS: Our local audits revealed a positive genetic testing rate of 15-26% in patients with suspected hyperparathyroidism syndromes. CONCLUSION: Based on the particular testing criteria met, affected patients should be tested for variants in the genes currently implicated in PHPT (MEN1, CDC73, RET, CDKN1B, GCM2, CASR) and/or FHH (CASR, GNA11, AP2S1). Patients should be provided with pre- and post-test counselling, including consideration of potential implications for family members.

Primary hyperparathyroidism in adults-(Part II) surgical management and postoperative follow-up: Position statement of the Endocrine Society of Australia, The Australian & New Zealand Endocrine Surgeons, and The Australian & New Zealand Bone and Mineral Society.

OBJECTIVE: To develop evidence-based recommendations to guide the surgical management and postoperative follow-up of adults with primary hyperparathyroidism. METHODS: Representatives from relevant Australian and New Zealand Societies used a systematic approach for adaptation of guidelines (ADAPTE) to derive an evidence-informed position statement addressing eight key questions. RESULTS: Diagnostic imaging does not determine suitability for surgery but can guide the planning of surgery in suitable candidates. First-line imaging includes ultrasound and either parathyroid 4DCT or scintigraphy, depending on local availability and expertise. Minimally invasive parathyroidectomy is appropriate in most patients with concordant imaging. Bilateral neck exploration should be considered in those with discordant/negative imaging findings, multi-gland disease and genetic/familial risk factors. Parathyroid surgery, especially re-operative surgery, has better outcomes in the hands of higher volume surgeons. Neuromonitoring is generally not required for initial surgery but should be considered for re-operative surgery. Following parathyroidectomy, calcium and parathyroid hormone levels should be re-checked in the first 24 h and repeated early if there are risk factors for hypocalcaemia. Eucalcaemia at 6 months is consistent with surgical cure; parathyroid hormone levels do not need to be re-checked in the absence of other clinical indications. Longer-term surveillance of skeletal health is recommended. CONCLUSIONS: This position statement provides up-to-date guidance on evidence-based best practice surgical and postoperative management of adults with primary hyperparathyroidism.

Primary hyperparathyroidism in adults-(Part I) assessment and medical management: Position statement of the endocrine society of Australia, the Australian & New Zealand endocrine surgeons, and the Australian & New Zealand bone and mineral society.

OBJECTIVE: To formulate clinical consensus recommendations on the presentation, assessment, and management of primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) in adults. METHODS: Representatives from relevant Australian and New Zealand Societies used a systematic approach for adaptation of guidelines (ADAPTE) to derive an evidence-informed position statement addressing nine key questions. RESULTS: PHPT is a biochemical diagnosis. Serum calcium should be measured in patients with suggestive symptoms, reduced bone mineral density or minimal trauma fractures, and in those with renal stones. Other indications are detailed in the manuscript. In patients with hypercalcaemia, intact parathyroid hormone, 25-hydroxy vitamin D, phosphate, and renal function should be measured. In established PHPT, assessment of bone mineral density, vertebral fractures, urinary tract calculi/nephrocalcinosis and quantification of urinary calcium excretion is warranted. Parathyroidectomy is the only definitive treatment and is warranted for all symptomatic patients and should be considered for asymptomatic patients without contraindications to surgery and with >10 years life expectancy. In patients who do not undergo surgery, we recommend annual evaluation for disease progression. Where the diagnosis is not clear or the risk-benefit ratio is not obvious, multidisciplinary discussion and formulation of a consensus management plan is appropriate. Genetic testing for familial hyperparathyroidism is recommended in selected patients. CONCLUSIONS: These clinical consensus recommendations were developed to provide clinicians with contemporary guidance on the assessment and management of PHPT in adults. It is anticipated that improved health outcomes for individuals and the population will be achieved at a decreased cost to the community.

Aberrant Splicing of SDHC in Families With Unexplained Succinate Dehydrogenase-Deficient Paragangliomas.

CONTEXT: Germline mutations in the succinate dehydrogenase genes (SDHA/B/C/D, SDHAF2-collectively, "SDHx") have been implicated in paraganglioma (PGL), renal cell carcinoma (RCC), gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST), and pituitary adenoma (PA). Negative SDHB tumor staining is indicative of SDH-deficient tumors, usually reflecting an underlying germline SDHx mutation. However, approximately 20% of individuals with SDH-deficient tumors lack an identifiable germline SDHx mutation. METHODS: We performed whole-exome sequencing (WES) of germline and tumor DNA followed by Sanger sequencing validation, transcriptome analysis, metabolomic studies, and haplotype analysis in 2 Italian-Australian families with SDH-deficient PGLs and various neoplasms, including RCC, GIST, and PA. RESULTS: Germline WES revealed a novel SDHC intronic variant, which had been missed during previous routine testing, in 4 affected siblings of the index family. Transcriptome analysis demonstrated aberrant SDHC splicing, with the retained intronic segment introducing a premature stop codon. WES of available tumors in this family showed chromosome 1 deletion with loss of wild-type SDHC in a PGL and a somatic gain-of-function KIT mutation in a GIST. The SDHC intronic variant identified was subsequently detected in the second family, with haplotype analysis indicating a founder effect. CONCLUSIONS: This is the deepest intronic variant to be reported among the SDHx genes. Intronic variants beyond the limits of standard gene sequencing analysis should be considered in patients with SDH-deficient tumors but negative genetic test results.

A putative role for the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) gene in a patient with cyclical Cushing's disease.

BACKGROUND: Apart from PRKAR1A mutations in a subset of cyclical Cushing's syndrome due to primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease, the molecular basis of cyclical Cushing's syndrome has not been investigated. We speculated that cyclical Cushing's syndrome may be due to mutations in the clock genes that govern circadian rhythms, including the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. CASE PRESENTATION: A 47-year-old man presented with mass effects from a sellar lesion. He was ultimately diagnosed with cyclical Cushing's disease due to a giant corticotrophinoma. We performed whole exome sequencing of germline and tumour DNA, SNP array of tumour DNA and tumour immunohistochemistry in order to detect variants in candidate circadian/pituitary-associated genes. We identified a rare germline missense variant in the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) gene, which has previously been indirectly linked to pituitary tumorigenesis and clock system disruption. The AHR variant was found in a highly conserved site involved in phosphorylation. It was predicted to be damaging by multiple in silico tools and AHR tumour immunohistochemistry demonstrated loss of the normal nuclear staining pattern, suggestive of an inactivating mutation. We also found a novel, damaging germline missense variant in the retinoid X receptor gamma (RXRG) gene, multiple somatic chromosomal gains (including AHR), and a somatic mutational signature consistent with oncogenesis that may have acted synergistically with the AHR variant. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first report of an AHR variant with predicted pathogenicity in the pituitary adenoma setting. Our preliminary data suggest that the highly conserved AHR gene may represent a link between pituitary tumorigenesis, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the clock system. Further research may indicate a role for the gene in the development of cyclical Cushing's disease.

Impulse Control Disorders in Dopamine Agonist-Treated Hyperprolactinemia: Prevalence and Risk Factors.

CONTEXT: There are growing reports of dopamine agonist (DA)-induced impulse control disorders (ICDs) in hyperprolactinemic patients. However, the magnitude of this risk and predictive factors remain uncertain. OBJECTIVE: To determine ICD prevalence and risk factors in DA-treated hyperprolactinemic patients compared to community controls. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Multicenter cross-sectional analysis of 113 patients and 99 healthy controls. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Participants completed a neuropsychological questionnaire consisting of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS21), Questionnaire for Impulsive-Compulsive Disorders in Parkinson's Disease (QUIP-S), Hypersexual Behavior Inventory (HBI), Hypersexual Behavior Consequences Scale and Social Desirability Response Set Scale. Demographic and clinical data were collated to determine ICD risk factors. Patients testing positive for an ICD were offered a semistructured psychological interview. RESULTS: Patients were more likely than controls to test positive by QUIP-S for any ICD (61.1 vs 42.4%, P = .01), hypersexuality (22.1 vs 8.1%, P = .009), compulsive buying (15.9 vs 6.1%, P = .041) and punding (18.6 vs 6.1%, P = 0.012), and by HBI for hypersexuality (8.0 vs 0.0%, P = 0.004). Independent risk factors were male sex (odds ratio [OR] 13.85), eugonadism (OR 7.85), Hardy's tumor score and psychiatric comorbidity (OR 6.86) for hypersexuality, and age (OR 0.95) for compulsive buying. DASS21 subset scores were higher in patients vs controls and in patients with vs without different ICDs. Only 19/51 (37.3%) interviewed patients were aware of the relationship between DAs and ICDs before the study. CONCLUSIONS: DA therapy poses a high, previously underestimated risk of ICDs, especially in the form of hypersexuality in eugonadal men.

Development and validation of a targeted gene sequencing panel for application to disparate cancers.

Next generation sequencing has revolutionised genomic studies of cancer, having facilitated the development of precision oncology treatments based on a tumour's molecular profile. We aimed to develop a targeted gene sequencing panel for application to disparate cancer types with particular focus on tumours of the head and neck, plus test for utility in liquid biopsy. The final panel designed through Roche/Nimblegen combined 451 cancer-associated genes (2.01 Mb target region). 136 patient DNA samples were collected for performance and application testing. Panel sensitivity and precision were measured using well-characterised DNA controls (n = 47), and specificity by Sanger sequencing of the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Interacting Protein (AIP) gene in 89 patients. Assessment of liquid biopsy application employed a pool of synthetic circulating tumour DNA (ctDNA). Library preparation and sequencing were conducted on Illumina-based platforms prior to analysis with our accredited (ISO15189) bioinformatics pipeline. We achieved a mean coverage of 395x, with sensitivity and specificity of >99% and precision of >97%. Liquid biopsy revealed detection to 1.25% variant allele frequency. Application to head and neck tumours/cancers resulted in detection of mutations aligned to published databases. In conclusion, we have developed an analytically-validated panel for application to cancers of disparate types with utility in liquid biopsy.

The Genomic Landscape of Sporadic Prolactinomas.

Somatic GNAS and USP8 mutations have been implicated in sporadic somatotrophinomas and corticotrophinomas, respectively. However, no genes are known to be recurrently mutated in sporadic prolactinomas. The prevalence of copy number variants (CNV), which is emerging as a mechanism of tumorigenesis in sporadic pituitary adenomas in general, is also unclear in prolactinomas. To characterize the genetic events underpinning sporadic prolactinomas, we performed whole exome sequencing of paired tumor and germline DNA from 12 prolactinoma patients. We observed recurrent large-scale CNV, most commonly in the form of copy number gains. We also identified sequence variants of interest in 15 genes. This included the DRD2, PRL, TMEM67, and MLH3 genes with plausible links to prolactinoma formation. Of the 15 genes of interest, CNV was seen at the gene locus in the corresponding tumor in 10 cases, and pituitary expression of eight genes was in the top 10% of tissues. However, none of our shortlisted somatic variants appeared to be classical driver mutations as no variant was found in more than one tumor. Future directions of research include mechanistic studies to investigate how CNV may contribute to prolactinoma formation, larger studies of relevant prolactinoma subsets according to clinical characteristics, and additional genetic investigations for aberrations not captured by whole exome sequencing.

Serum prolactin overestimation and risk of misdiagnosis.

BACKGROUND: Falsely elevated prolactin measurements risk overdiagnosis, and unnecessary imaging and treatment. DESIGN: We conducted a clinical audit of 18 patients who presented with hyperprolactinaemia, followed by a laboratory audit of 40 split samples across a range of serum prolactin (5-5051 mIU/L). In each case (total n = 58), serum prolactin was measured on both Roche and Siemens platforms. RESULTS: Serum prolactin as measured by Roche was higher than the corresponding Siemens value in every case, despite similar reference ranges. The mean discrepancy in serum prolactin by Roche vs. Siemens was +81% in the clinical audit and +50% in the laboratory audit. This led to unnecessary interventions in 7/18 patients (39%) in the clinical audit. CONCLUSIONS: Serum prolactin is overestimated on the Roche relative to the Siemens platform. Laboratories should review Roche reference intervals for serum prolactin, and clinicians should consider repeating serum prolactin on another platform if the serum prolactin is incongruent with the clinical scenario.

Familial GATA6 mutation causing variably expressed diabetes mellitus and cardiac and renal abnormalities.

A 26-year-old man presented with a combination of permanent neonatal diabetes due to pancreatic aplasia, complex congenital heart disease, central hypogonadism and growth hormone deficiency, structural renal abnormalities with proteinuria, umbilical hernia, neurocognitive impairment and dysmorphic features. His older brother had diabetes mellitus due to pancreatic hypoplasia, complex congenital heart disease, hypospadias and umbilical hernia. Their father had an atrial septal defect, umbilical hernia and diabetes mellitus diagnosed incidentally in adulthood on employment screening. The proband's paternal grandmother had a congenital heart defect. Genetic testing of the proband revealed a novel heterozygous missense variant (Chr18:g.19761441T>C, c.1330T>C, p.Cys444Arg) in exon 4 of GATA6, which is class 5 (pathogenic) using American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics guidelines and is likely to account for his multisystem disorder. The same variant was detected in his brother and father, but not his paternal grandmother. This novel variant of GATA6 likely occurred de novo in the father with autosomal dominant inheritance in the proband and his brother. The case is exceptional as very few families with monogenic diabetes due to GATA6 mutations have been reported to date and we describe a new link between GATA6 and renal pathology. Learning points: Monogenic diabetes should be suspected in patients presenting with syndromic features, multisystem congenital disease, neonatal-onset diabetes and/or a suggestive family history. Recognition and identification of genetic diabetes may improve patient understanding and empowerment and allow for better tailored management. Identification of a genetic disorder may have important implications for family planning.

Fall in thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) may be an early marker of ipilimumab-induced hypophysitis.

PURPOSE: Hypophysitis develops in up to 19% of melanoma patients treated with ipilimumab, a cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 antibody. Early detection may avert life-threatening hypopituitarism. We aimed to assess the incidence of ipilimumab-induced hypophysitis (IH) at a quaternary melanoma referral centre, and to determine whether cortisol or thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) monitoring could predict IH onset. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study of ipilimumab-treated patients at a quaternary melanoma referral centre in Australia. The inclusion criteria were patients with metastatic or unresectable melanoma treated with ipilimumab monotherapy, and cortisol and TSH measurements prior to ≥ 2 infusions. The main outcomes were IH incidence and TSH and cortisol patterns in patients who did and did not develop IH. RESULTS: Of 78 ipilimumab-treated patients, 46 met the study criteria and 9/46 (20%) developed IH at a median duration of 13.0 weeks (range 7.7-18.1) following ipilimumab initiation. All patients whose TSH fell ≥ 80% compared to baseline developed IH, and, in 5/9 patients with IH, TSH fell prior to cortisol fall and IH diagnosis. Pre-cycle-4 TSH was significantly lower in those who developed IH (0.31 vs. 1.73 mIU/L, P = 0.006). TSH fall was detected at a median time of 9.2 (range 7.7-16.4) weeks after commencing ipilimumab, and a median of 3.6 (range of - 1.4 to 9.7) weeks before IH diagnosis. There was no difference in TSH between the groups before cycles 1-3 or in cortisol before cycles 1-4. CONCLUSIONS: TSH fall ≥ 80% may be an early marker of IH. Serial TSH measurement during ipilimumab therapy may be an inexpensive tool to expedite IH diagnosis.

Vasculogenic hyperprolactinemia: severe prolactin excess in association with internal carotid artery aneurysms.

PURPOSE: Internal carotid artery (ICA) aneurysms have rarely been found in association with marked hyperprolactinemia in the absence of prolactinoma; the cause of hyperprolactinemia has never been investigated. We aimed to determine if the observed hyperprolactinemia is due to a vascular-derived or known prolactin secretagogue from the injured ICA, analogous to pregnancy-associated hyperprolactinemia putatively due to placental factors. METHODS: We conducted a case series and literature review of individuals with severe hyperprolactinemia in association with ICA aneurysms. In two affected patients at our institutions, we performed RT-PCR and ELISA of prolactin secretagogues that are produced by vascular tissue and/or upregulated in pregnancy: AGT (encoding angiotensinogen), TAC1 (encoding substance P), HDC (encoding the enzyme responsible for conversion of histidine to histamine), and prolactin-releasing hormone (PRLH). Patient blood samples were compared to pregnancy blood samples (positive controls) and middle-aged male blood samples (negative controls). RESULTS: Two men presented with serum prolactin >100-fold normal associated with cavernous ICA aneurysms and no pituitary adenoma. Aneurysm stenting in one man more than halved his serum prolactin. In both men, dopamine agonist therapy markedly reduced serum prolactin. RT-PCR and ELISA showed no differences between patients and controls in AGT, TAC1 or HDC expression or PRLH titre, respectively. Literature review revealed 11 similar cases. CONCLUSIONS: We propose the term 'vasculogenic hyperprolactinemia' to encompass the hyperprolactinemia associated with ICA aneurysms. This may be mediated by an endothelial factor capable of paracrine stimulation of lactotrophs; however, angiotensin II, substance P, histamine and PRLH appear unlikely to be causative.