Ant colony optimization for parallel test assembly.

Ant colony optimization (ACO) algorithms have previously been used to compile single short scales of psychological constructs. In the present article, we showcase the versatility of the ACO to construct multiple parallel short scales that adhere to several competing and interacting criteria simultaneously. Based on an initial pool of 120 knowledge items, we assembled three 12-item tests that (a) adequately cover the construct at the domain level, (b) follow a unidimensional measurement model, (c) allow reliable and (d) precise measurement of factual knowledge, and (e) are gender-fair. Moreover, we aligned the test characteristic and test information functions of the three tests to establish the equivalence of the tests. We cross-validated the assembled short scales and investigated their association with the full scale and covariates that were not included in the optimization procedure. Finally, we discuss potential extensions to metaheuristic test assembly and the equivalence of parallel knowledge tests in general.

Declarative knowledge in oral health: The case of the term 'centric occlusion'.

INTRODUCTION: The lack of academic agreement in the practical or clinical use of declarative knowledge can generate unnecessary confusion and miscommunication. The concept Centric Occlusion (CO) is part of the body of declarative knowledge in dentistry, but its definition remains unclear. OBJECTIVE: To ascertain the CO concept in articles published in dental journals as a study case for the dentistry "corpus" of declarative knowledge. METHODOLOGY: The alternative definitions of CO used by the GPT (Glossary of Prosthodontic Terms) from 1956-1977, 'CO as a synonym for maximum intercuspal contact (MIC)', or by the GPT from 1987-2017, 'CO may or may not coincide with MIC', were searched in the articles. The association between the CO definition used and variables such as article aims, journal scope and authors specialty was assessed. RESULTS: Eight hundred and twelve articles were analysed. The widespread use of CO as synonym of MIC was the main finding and was significantly associated to the Orthodontics field. The CO definition according to the GPT 1987-2017 was less frequently observed but appeared in all dentistry fields, showing a significant association with the Oral Rehabilitation field. The difficulty of incorporating the current definition of CO (by GPT) into the main clinical discussions was evidenced all the long of the review process. CONCLUSION: The lack of consensus in the concept use was confirmed by the present study case, showing the influence of specific fields in Oral Health declarative knowledge. This methodology can provide a tool to the academy to assess controversial terms or concepts in Oral Health education, thus facilitating the critical and reflexive learning by students.

Visual illusions influence proceduralized sports performance.

Does the Ebbinghaus visual illusion really influence sports performances? Does the influence depend on the type of knowledge (procedural vs. declarative) that guides movement? To address these questions, we evaluated the knowledge hypothesis, a novel hypothesis according to which the more sports performance relies on procedural knowledge, the more it will be influenced by visual illusions. In the context of golf putting, we first used the high-error/low-error motor-learning technique (Experiment 1) or varied the number of practice trials (Experiment 2) to induce novice participants to rely more on procedural knowledge than on declarative knowledge (or vice versa). We then manipulated the perceived size of two golf holes by projecting a ring of small or large circles around them, which caused the holes to appear larger or smaller, respectively. This Ebbinghaus visual illusion had an influence on putting in both experiments. We also observed a pattern of findings consistent with the knowledge hypothesis: the procedural groups were moderately influenced by the illusion when putting, but the declarative groups were influenced only weakly, at best. Among the participants most sensitive to the illusion, the analyses confirmed a significantly stronger influence for the procedural group. Overall, these findings demonstrate that the effect of visual illusions on sports performance is a reliable phenomenon for proceduralized actions. The knowledge hypothesis represents an attractive way of reconciling earlier divergent findings.

Stop Worrying about Multiple-Choice: Fact Knowledge Does Not Change with Response Format.

Declarative fact knowledge is a key component of crystallized intelligence. It is typically measured with multiple-choice (MC) items. Other response formats, such as open-ended formats are less frequently used, although these formats might be superior for measuring crystallized intelligence. Whereas MC formats presumably only require recognizing the correct response to a question, open-ended formats supposedly require cognitive processes such as searching for, retrieving, and actively deciding on a response from long-term memory. If the methods of inquiry alter the cognitive processes involved, mean-changes between methods for assessing declarative knowledge should come along with changes in the covariance structure. We tested these assumptions in two online studies administering declarative knowledge items in different response formats (MC, open-ended, and open-ended with cues). Item difficulty clearly increases in the open-ended methods although effects in logistic regression models vary slightly across items. Importantly, latent variable analyses suggest that the method of inquiry does not affect what is measured with different response formats. These findings clearly endorse the position that crystallized intelligence does not change as a function of the response format.

Surgical declarative knowledge learning: concept and acceptability study.

Improving surgical training by means of technology assistance is an important challenge that aims to directly impact surgical quality. Surgical training includes the acquisition of two categories of knowledge: declarative knowledge (i.e. 'knowing what') and procedural knowledge (i.e. 'knowing how'). It is essential to acquire both before performing any particular surgery. There are currently many tools for acquiring procedural knowledge, such as simulators. However, few approaches or tools allow a trainer to formalize and record surgical declarative knowledge, and a trainee to have easy access to it. In this paper, we propose an approach for structuring surgical declarative knowledge according to procedural knowledge and based on surgical process modeling. A dedicated software application has been implemented. We evaluated the concept and the software usability on two procedures with different medical populations: endoscopic third ventriculostomy involving 6 neurosurgeons and preparation of a surgical table for craniotomy involving 4 scrub nurses. The results of both studies show that surgical process models could be a well-adapted approach for structuring and visualizing surgical declarative knowledge. The software application was perceived by neurosurgeons and scrub nurses as an innovative tool for managing and presenting surgical knowledge. The preliminary results show that the feasibility of the proposed approach and the acceptability and usability of the corresponding software. Future experiments will study impact of such an approach on knowledge acquisition.

Core Cognitive Mechanisms Underlying Syntactic Priming: A Comparison of Three Alternative Models.

Syntactic priming (SP) is the effect by which, in a dialogue, the current speaker tends to re-use the syntactic constructs of the previous speakers. SP has been used as a window into the nature of syntactic representations within and across languages. Because of its importance, it is crucial to understand the mechanisms behind it. Currently, two competing theories exist. According to the transient activation account, SP is driven by the re-activation of declarative memory structures that encode structures. According to the error-based implicit learning account, SP is driven by prediction errors while processing sentences. By integrating both transient activation and associative learning, Reitter et al.'s hybrid model 2011 assumes that SP is achieved by both mechanisms, and predicts a priming enhancement for rare or unusual constructions. Finally, a recently proposed account, the reinforcement learning account, claims that SP driven by the successful application of procedural knowledge will be reversed when the prime sentence includes grammatical errors. These theories make different assumptions about the representation of syntactic rules (declarative vs. procedural) and the nature of the mechanism that drives priming (frequency and repetition, attention, and feedback signals, respectively). To distinguish between these theories, they were all implemented as computational models in the ACT-R cognitive architecture, and their specific predictions were examined through grid-search computer simulations. Two experiments were then carried out to empirically test the central prediction of each theory as well as the individual fits of each participant's responses to different parameterizations of each model. The first experiment produced results that were best explained by the associative account, but could also be accounted for by a modified reinforcement model with a different parsing algorithm. The second experiment, whose stimuli were designed to avoid the parsing ambiguity of the first, produced somewhat weaker effects. Its results, however, were also best predicted by the model implementing the associative account. We conclude that the data overall points to SP being due to prediction violations that direct attentional resources, in turn suggesting a declarative rather than a RL based procedural representation of syntactic rules.

The Missing Link? Middle School Students' Procedural Knowledge on Fitness.

Purpose: Guided by the declarative-procedural knowledge framework, the study attempts to identify middle school students' declarative (knowing what) and procedural (knowing how) fitness knowledge and the relationship between the two. Methods: A sample of students (n = 291, age 11-14 years) from 24 middle schools took a grade-relevant standardized knowledge test on declarative fitness knowledge and received a semistructured interview designed to clarify their declarative and procedural knowledge. Results: Most students were lacking in procedural knowledge to conduct fitness-enhancing physical activities. A few students who had mastered declarative fitness knowledge demonstrated a high level of procedural knowledge consistent with personal fitness goals. Discussion: The findings suggest that incapability to engage in fitness-enhancing physical activities could be a result of lacking procedural fitness knowledge. Future school-based interventions may prioritize procedural knowledge learning for actual physical activity participation.

Caught in the Act: Predicting Cheating in Unproctored Knowledge Assessment.

Cheating is a serious threat in unproctored ability assessment, irrespective of countermeasures taken, anticipated consequences (high vs. low stakes), and test modality (paper-pencil vs. computer-based). In the present study, we examined the power of (a) self-report-based indicators (i.e., Honesty-Humility and Overclaiming scales), (b) test data (i.e., performance with extremely difficult items), and (c) para data (i.e., reaction times, switching between browser tabs) to predict participants' cheating behavior. To this end, 315 participants worked on a knowledge test in an unproctored online assessment and subsequently in a proctored lab assessment. We used multiple regression analysis and an extended latent change score model to assess the potential of the different indicators to predict cheating. In summary, test data and para data performed best, while traditional self-report-based indicators were not predictive. We discuss the findings with respect to unproctored testing in general and provide practical advice on cheating detection in online ability assessments.

Students' tactical understanding during a hybrid sport education/step-game approach model volleyball teaching unit / O conhecimento tático dos alunos durante uma unidade híbrida do modelo de educação desportiva e do modelo de abordagem progressiva ao jogo no voleibol / El conocimiento táctico de los alumnos durante una unidad de híbrida del modelo de educación deportiva y del modelo de aproximación progresiva al juego en el voleibol

Abstract: Model-based research has been enhancing the positive effectiveness of both Sport Education and Step-Game Approach on students' technical, tactical and game-play improvements. Nevertheless, the analysis of students' declarative understanding on the game in this area was scarce. This study examined their declarative understanding on the game during their participation in a hybrid Sport Education/Step-Game Approach teaching unit. Ninety-six students with no previous experience in either model participated in a 24-lesson volleyball season. A video-based test was developed to assess students' declarative game understanding and applied before and after the teaching unit. Results showed that they improved in all tactical content taught during the unit. These results can find explanation on Sport Education features such as cooperative team practices and the possibility for being in roles other than players. Beyond that, instructional procedures considered by the Step-Game-Approach stimulated the development of students' tactical awareness.

Resumo: A investigação nos modelos instrucionais tem enaltecido o impacto positivo do Modelo de Educação Desportiva e do Modelo de Abordagem Progressiva ao Jogo no desenvolvimento técnico e tático dos alunos, assim como no desempenho geral no jogo. Todavia, a análise do conhecimento tático dos alunos neste âmbito tem sido escassa. O presente estudo tem como propósito analisar o conhecimento tático declarativo dos alunos durante uma unidade híbrida desses dois modelos na modalidade de voleibol. Noventa e seis alunos sem experiência prévia nos dois modelos participaram numa época desportiva com 24 aulas. Foi desenvolvido um teste de vídeo para analisar o desenvolvimento do conhecimento tático declarativo dos alunos, o qual foi aplicado antes e depois da unidade. Todos os alunos melhoraram nos conteúdos táticos ensinados, o que pode encontrar explicação no trabalho colaborativo em equipas, na possibilidade dos alunos participarem noutros papéis para além de jogadores e nos processos instrucionais, características dos dois modelos.

Resumen: La investigación en los modelos de instrucción ha enaltecido el impacto positivo del Modelo de Educación Deportiva y del Modelo de Aproximación Progresiva al Juego en el desarrollo técnico y táctico de los alumnos, así como también en el desempeño general en el juego. Sin embargo, el análisis del conocimiento táctico de los alumnos en este ámbito ha sido escaso. El presente estudio tiene como propósito analizar el conocimiento táctico declarado de los alumnos durante una unidad híbrida de estos dos modelos en la modalidad de Voleibol. 96 alumnos sin experiencia previa en los dos modelos participaron en una temporada deportiva con 24 clases. Se desarrolló un test de vídeo para analizar el desarrollo del conocimiento táctico declarado de los alumnos, que se aplicó antes y después de la unidad. Todos los alumnos mejoraron en los contenidos tácticos enseñados, lo que puede encontrar explicación en el trabajo colaborativo en equipos, en la posibilidad de que los alumnos participen en otros papeles además de como jugadores y en los procesos de instrucción, características de los dos modelos.

Conhecimentos declarativos técnico-táticos de handebol manifestados por estudantes em aulas de Educação Física / Technical-tactical declarative knowledge of handball expressed by students in Physical Education classes / Conocimientos declarativos técnico-tácticos de balonmano manifestados por estudiantes en clases de Educación Física

Os objetivos deste estudo foram identificar e analisar os conhecimentos declarativos técnico-táticos de handebol manifestados por estudantes quando observam e analisam jogos de handebol. O estudo, assentado na abordagem qualitativa, utilizou entrevista e observações de aula para a coleta dos dados. Os participantes foram 30 estudantes de uma turma de sexto ano. Os resultados demonstraram uma série de manifestações de conhecimentos declarativos técnico-táticos do handebol, como o conhecimento das regras básicas necessárias para jogar; o entendimento da dinâmica do jogo (posicionamento em quadra) e a compreensão do jogo oficial da modalidade. Assim, foi possível verificar que os estudantes acessaram, mobilizaram e manifestaram o conhecimento declarativo técnico-tático acerca do handebol, dentre esses conhecimentos: o conhecimento das regras básicas (que dão a possibilidade de conseguir jogar); os objetivos do jogo necessários para o entendimento de seu funcionamento; as características especificas do handebol, bem como aquelas que podem ser transferidas para outros esportes.

The objectives of this study were to identify and analyze the technical-tactical declarative knowledge of handball expressed by students when observing and analyzing handball games. The study, based on the qualitative approach, used interview and class observations to collect the data. The participants were thirty students from a sixth grade class. The results demonstrated a series of declarations of technical-tactical declarative knowledge of handball, such as knowledge of the basic rules necessary to play; the understanding of the dynamics of the game (positioning on the court) and the understanding of the official game of the modality. Thus, it was possible to verify that the students accessed and mobilized the declarative technical-tactical knowledge about handball, among these knowledge: knowledge of the basic rules (which give the possibility of being able to play); the objectives of the game necessary for the understanding of its functioning; the specific characteristics of handball, as well as those that may be transferable to other sports.

Los objetivos de este estudio fueron identificar y analizar los conocimientos declarativos técnico-tácticos de balonmano manifestados por estudiantes cuando observan y analizan juegos de balonmano. El estudio, asentado en el abordaje cualitativo, utilizó entrevista y observaciones de clase para la recolección de los datos. Los participantes fueron treinta estudiantes de una clase de sexto año. Los resultados demostraron una serie de manifestaciones de conocimientos declarativos técnico-tácticos del balonmano, como el conocimiento de las reglas básicas necesarias para jugar; el entendimiento de la dinámica del juego (posicionamiento en cuadra) y la comprensión del juego oficial de la modalidad. Así, fue posible verificar que los estudiantes accedieron y movilizaron el conocimiento declarativo técnico-táctico acerca del balonmano, entre esos conocimientos: el conocimiento de las reglas básicas (que dan la posibilidad de conseguir jugar); los objetivos del juego necesarios para el entendimiento de su funcionamiento; las características específicas del balonmano, así como las que pueden ser transferibles para otros deportes.

Intact Procedural Knowledge in Patients with Alzheimer's Disease: Evidence from Golf Putting.

Can Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients efficiently learn to perform a complex motor skill when relying on procedural knowledge? To address this question, the authors compared the golf-putting performance of AD patients, older adults, and younger adults in 2 different learning situations: one that promotes high error rates (thus increasing the reliance on declarative knowledge) or one that promotes low error rates (thus increasing the reliance on procedural knowledge). Motor performance was poorer overall for AD patients and older adults relative to younger adults in the high-error condition but equivalent between similar groups in the low-error condition. Also, AD patients in the low-error condition had better performance at the final putting distance relative to those in the high-error condition. This performance facilitation for AD patients likely stems from intact procedural knowledge.

Impacto de diferentes estratégias de ensino no desenvolvimento do conhecimento declarativo de iniciantes na ginástica artística / Impact of implementing different teaching strategies on the development of declarative knowledge of beginner artistic gymnastics athletes / Impacto de la implementación de estrategias de enseñanza en el desarrollo del conocimiento declarativo de practicantes principiantes de gimnasia artística

Resumo Objetivo Verificar o impacto da aplicação de uma abordagem instrucional baseada em três modelos de ensino (instrução direta, ensino de pares e aprendizagem cooperativa) no aumento do conhecimento declarativo em praticantes de ginástica artística (GA). Metodologia Aplicação de um questionário a 56 praticantes do sexo feminino entre nove e 12 anos, 28 no grupo experimental e 25 no grupo controle. Resultados Evidenciaram que o grupo experimental evoluiu significativamente no conhecimento declarativo, independentemente do nível de habilidade das praticantes, enquanto no grupo controle não houve evolução. Conclusão O estudo evidencia a importância de aplicação combinada de diferentes modelos de ensino na eficácia pedagógica do treino da GA.

Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of an instructional approach based on three teaching models (direct instruction, peer-teaching and cooperative learning) in the development of athletes' declarative knowledge in Artistic Gymnastic. Data were obtained from a questionnaire applied to 53 female participants divided in an experimental group (28) and a control group (25) with ages between 9 and 12 years old. The results showed that experimental group increased significantly in the declarative knowledge, independently of the athletes' skill level, unlike the control group that showed no evolution. These results enhance the importance of combining different teaching models in order to improve the effectiveness of Artistic Gymnastic training process.

Resumen El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo verificar el impacto de la implementación de un método de enseñanza basado en tres modelos de enseñanza (instrucción directa, enseñanza entre pares y aprendizaje cooperativo) en el incremento del conocimiento declarativo en gimnasia artística (GA). Los datos se recogieron en un cuestionario aplicado a 56 practicantes femeninas entre 9 y 12 años, 28 en el grupo experimental y 25 en el grupo de control. Los resultados mostraron que el grupo experimental evolucionó significativamente en el conocimiento declarativo, independientemente del nivel de conocimientos de las niñas, mientras que en el grupo de control no hubo evolución. Este estudio pone de relieve la importancia de la aplicación combinada de diferentes modelos de enseñanza en la eficacia pedagógica del entrenamiento de GA.

Children's knowledge of eating: An integrative review of the literature.

Behaviors associated with eating are often cited as one of many factors contributing to the development of childhood obesity. Behavior is thought to be guided, in part, by personal beliefs and tacit knowledge, which arise from the interpretation of sensory-motor experiences. Tacit knowledge, however, differs from declarative knowledge or the acquisition of factual information attained during formal education. Yet, there are no known publications that review children's and adolescent's tacit and declarative knowledge of eating. The purpose of this integrative review was to examine the evidence regarding children's and adolescents' knowledge of eating. Literature searches were conducted in CINAHL, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Selected publications included in the integrative review were empirical studies written in English that described children's and adolescent's knowledge of eating. A total of 548 publications resulted from the searches. Thirty met the inclusion criteria. Preschool-age children understood concepts related to edibleness, nutrition, and digestion as a result of their experiences with food and eating. School-age children and adolescents correctly identified not only facts about food, nutrition, and health, but also factors that influenced their decisions about eating. School-age children and adolescents also expressed concern about their diet, barriers to being healthy, and their appearance. Evidence presented in this integrative review revealed that children, including those of preschool-age, know a great deal about eating. Moreover, the evidence suggests that beliefs and tacit knowledge are more influential in directing eating behaviors than declarative knowledge or knowing facts about food, nutrition, the body, or health. Understanding what children believe and tacitly know about eating will be useful in tailoring interventions to prevent the development of childhood obesity.

What Did They Learn? Effects of a Brief Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Workshop on Community Therapists' Knowledge.

Knowledge gain has been identified as necessary but not sufficient for therapist behavior change. Declarative knowledge, or factual knowledge, is thought to serve as a prerequisite for procedural knowledge, the how to knowledge system, and reflective knowledge, the skill refinement system. The study aimed to examine how a 1-day workshop affected therapist cognitive behavioral therapy declarative knowledge. Participating community therapists completed a test before and after training that assessed cognitive behavioral therapy knowledge. Results suggest that the workshop significantly increased declarative knowledge. However, post-training total scores remained moderately low, with several questions answered incorrectly despite content coverage in the workshop. These findings may have important implications for structuring effective cognitive behavioral therapy training efforts and for the successful implementation of cognitive behavioral therapy in community settings.

Cognitive foundations of organizational learning: re-introducing the distinction between declarative and non-declarative knowledge.

Contemporary research into socio-cognitive foundations of organizational learning tends to disregard the distinction between declarative and non-declarative knowledge. By reviewing the literature from organizational learning research and cognitive psychology we explain that this distinction is crucial. We describe the foundations of organizational learning by referring to models that consider the interplay between individual and collective knowledge-related processes in organizations. We highlight the existence of a research gap resulting from the finding that these approaches have widely neglected the existence of different types of knowledge. We then elaborate on characteristics of declarative and non-declarative knowledge in general, consider organizations as structures of distributed cognition, and discuss the relationship between organizational knowledge and practice. Subsequently, we examine the role of declarative and non-declarative knowledge in the context of organizational learning. Here, we analyze (1) the cognitive and social mechanisms underlying the development of declarative and non-declarative knowledge within structures of distributed cognition; and (2) the relationship between alterations in declarative and non-declarative types of knowledge on the one hand and changes in organizational practice on the other. Concluding, we discuss implications of our analysis for organizational learning research. We explain how our integrative perspective may offer starting points for a refined understanding of the sub-processes involved in organizational learning and unlearning and may support a better understanding of practical problems related to organizational learning and change.

Knowledge, instruction and behavioural change: building a framework for effective eczema education in clinical practice.

AIMS: A discussion on the reasons educational interventions about eczema, by nurses, are successful, with the subsequent development of a theoretical framework to guide nurses to become effective patient educators. BACKGROUND: Effective child and parent education is the key to successful self-management of eczema. When diagnosed, children and parents should learn to understand the condition through clear explanations, seeing treatment demonstrations and have ongoing support to learn practical skills to control eczema. Dermatology nurses provide these services, but no one has proposed a framework of the concepts underpinning their successful eczema educational interventions. DESIGN: A discussion paper. DATA SOURCES: A literature search of online databases was undertaken utilizing terms 'eczema OR atopic dermatitis', 'education', 'parent', 'nurs*', 'framework', 'knowledge', motivation', in Scopus, CINAHL, Web of Science, Medline and Pubmed. Limits were English language and 2003-2013. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING: The framework can inform discussion on child and parent education, provide a scaffold for future research and guide non-specialist nurses, internationally, in providing consistent patient education about eczema. CONCLUSION: Founded on an understanding of knowledge, the framework utilizes essential elements of cognitive psychology and social cognitive theory leading to successful self-management of eczema. This framework may prove useful as a basis for future research in child and parent education, globally, in the healthcare community. A framework has been created to help nurses understand the essential elements of the learning processes at the foundation of effective child and parent education. The framework serves to explain the improved outcomes reported in previous nurse-led eczema educational interventions.

Los conductores re-examinados: El transcurso del tiempo deteriora significativamente los conocimientos de los conductores / Re-examined drivers: Significant deterioration on knowledge of drivers over time

Dos mil cinco conductores, 1204 hombres y 801 mujeres, una muestra representativa de la población española de conductores, fueron nuevamente examinados utilizando un cuestionario que reproducía fielmente un examen de conducir realizado por la Dirección General de Tráfico (DGT). Las preguntas fueron clasificadas en "muy importantes", "importantes" y "poco importantes". El 96.5 % de los conductores, suspendió el examen. Los resultados eran tanto peores cuanto más tiempo había transcurrido desde la obtención del permiso de conducir. Esto era independiente de la importancia de las preguntas, de la mayor o menor frecuencia de conducción y afectaba por igual a hombres y mujeres. Las mujeres obtienen mejores puntuaciones en señalización mientras que los hombres son mejores en las preguntas de seguridad vial. Los resultados también demostraban que los conductores profesionales y los de mayor nivel educativo sufren un menor deterioro. Tales resultados nos llevan a considerar la relación que estos datos puedan tener en los niveles de accidentalidad y la conveniencia de establecer pautas para la actualización del conocimiento de los conductores. Finalmente, se discute la relevancia que el examen que se utiliza para obtener el permiso de conducir tiene como indicador o predictor de una futura conducción segura.

Two thousand and five drivers, 1204 men and 801 women, a representative sample of the Spanish drivers, were re-examined using a questionnaire that faithfully reproduced a driving test conducted by the Directorate General of Traffic (DGT). Items were classified as "very important", "important" and "unimportant." 96.5% of drivers did not pass the test. The results were much worse the more time had elapsed since obtaining the driving license. These results were independent of the importance of the items, the greater or lesser frequency of driving and applied equally to men and women. Women perform better signalling while men are better at questions of road safety. Results also showed that the loss of knowledge was lower in those drivers who had higher education training and professional drivers. The results lead us to consider the relationship that these data may have on levels of accidents and the desirability of establishing guidelines for updating the knowledge of the drivers. Finally, the relevance of the test used to obtain a driver's license as an indicator or predictor of safe driving is discussed.

El conocimiento estratégico durante el estudio de textos en la enseñanza secundaria / Strategic knowledge while studying texts in secondary education

Una de las actividades habituales de los alumnos de educación secundaria obligatoria es la que genéricamente denominamos "estudio" que, casi siempre, es un requisito indispensable para superar la evaluación de una materia o un curso. La investigación ha puesto de manifiesto que el estudio estratégico y eficaz se caracteriza por un uso flexible de los procedimientos de aprendizaje en función de los conocimientos previos pero también en función de las demandas y los objetivos que guían la actuación en situaciones específicas. Para conocer si los estudiantes de secundaria abordan el estudio de forma estratégica y eficaz, diseñamos una investigación en la que se analizó la interpretación y la actuación de una muestra de 149 estudiantes de secundaria obligatoria (muestra final) enfrentados a dos tareas de estudio diferentes. Los resultados muestran que, aunque los alumnos declaran conocer procedimientos variados, los que usan más frecuentemente ante cualquier tarea de estudio son los de adquisición de la información. Además, un porcentaje elevado de estudiantes, en las dos tareas, abordaron el estudio e interpretaron las tareas sin tener en cuenta la demanda con que fueron formuladas. Por otro lado, la utilización de procedimientos más complejos (como los de elaboración y análisis de la información) y su uso estratégico en la actividad de estudio, fueron variables que influyeron positivamente en la resolución de tareas que implican la organización de la información a partir del texto estudiado.

Studying is one of the most usual tasks in Secondary Education and almost always it is a requirement for students to be assessed. Research has shown that the strategic and efficient ways to study are characterised by a flexible use of the students' learning procedures, not only on the basis on previous knowledge, but also on the basis of the activities demands and learning objectives in situated contexts. In order to know how secondary students face up to study strategically, the interpretation and activity of 149 students (final sample) when studying two texts with different task demands and aims were analysed. The results showed that acquisition procedures were the most frequently used in both tasks, despite students' declarative knowledge about alternative procedures. Moreover, a high percentage of students interpreted both tasks without taking into account its specific demand. On the other hand, the use of more complex procedures and a high level of awareness about procedural knowledge were variables positively related with solving comprehension tasks which involve the students' personal elaboration and organization of the information.

Sistematização do conhecimento declarativo em educação física escolar de 5ª à 8ª séries do ensino fundamental / Systematization of the declarative knowledge in physical education in Brazil from 5th to 8th grades - basic education

O presente estudo objetivou selecionar, sistematizar e validar o conhecimento declarativo sobre o movimento a ser ensinado no componente curricular Educação Física, de 5ª a 8ª séries do Ensino Fundamental. O conhecimento declarativo sobre o movimento humano foi selecionado com base em livros didáticos de Educação Física e, sua pertinência para a educação física escolar, sendo avaliada por 11 docentes de ensino superior envolvidos com Licenciatura em suas instituições. A sistematização do conhecimento foi realizada com base nos temas selecionados pelos docentes e iniciada com a definição dos comportamentos de saída esperados ao final do quarto ciclo do Ensino Fundamental. Nesse processo, foi considerado o nível de letramento dos alunos (de acordo com indicadores do Ministério da Educação) e os objetivos dos outros componentes curriculares. A validação da proposta foi realizada por 167 professores de Educação Física e 75 assistentes técnico pedagógicos (ATP) da rede Estadual de Ensino. A escala utilizada para avaliação de cada comportamento por série foi a do tipo Likert, que tem como objetivo avaliar o grau de concordância ou discordância de determinadas afirmações. A maioria dos comportamentos esperados por séries recebeu uma aceitação maior que 80 por cento por parte dos professores. Valores menores que esse percentual não apresentaram concordância para uma determinada série. Houve quatro comportamentos (referentes a dimensões biodinâmica e comportamental) que apresentaram unanimidade na aceitação para a 8ª série.

This study aimed at selecting, systematizing and validating the declarative knowledge on the movement that can be transmitted during physical education classes from 5th to 8th grades. The selection of such declarative knowledge on human movement was based on physical education textbooks and its importance to physical education was evaluated by eleven professors. Starting from the themes selected by the teachers, the systematization of the knowledge was undertaken based on the definition of the outcomes at the end of the 4th cycle of the Basic Education. During this process the level of literacy of the students (according to indicators of the Ministry of Education) and the goals of other curricular components were taken into account. The proposal was validated by tests with 167 physical education teachers and 75 technical-pedagogical assistants from state schools. In order to evaluate the rate of agreement or disagreement of certain statements, the Likert scale was used to analyse the outcomes of each grade. Most of the outcomes on each grade have more than 80 percent of acceptance. Within a minority of the outcomes the agreement of the adequate grade was not unanimous. In four of the outcomes, referring to biodinamic and comportamental aspects, the acceptance was unanimous regarding the 8th grade.