The Effect of Sleep on the Health and Dietary Behaviours of GAA Athletes.

Decreased sleep quality and duration is associated with an array of negative health outcomes. Evidence suggests athletes are susceptible to sleep inadequacies that may in turn affect their health and dietary behaviours. This study aimed to explore the sleep profile of both male and female Gaelic games players, at an elite and sub-elite level and compare how poor sleep relates to subjective health complaints and food cravings. One hundred and seventy Gaelic games players completed the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Subjective Health Complaints Inventory (SHC) and Food Cravings Questionnaire-Trait-Reduced (FCQ-T-r). Participants were categorised into two groups: poor sleepers (PSQI ≥ 5) and good sleepers (PSQI < 5). Outcome measures of health and food cravings were analysed across the groups, Mann-Whitney U tests were used to assess differences, and Spearman's rank-order correlations were used to determine relationships between variables. Sixty-seven % of athletes were categorised as poor sleepers. There were no significant differences in PSQI scores across genders (p = 0.088) or playing level (p = 0.072). Poor sleepers experienced significantly increased SHC (p < 0.001) and female athletes had significantly more SHC compared to males (p < 0.001). Female athletes experienced more food cravings than males (p = 0.013). However, there were no significant differences in food cravings between good and poor sleepers (p = 0.104). The findings suggest a high prevalence of poor sleepers amongst GAA athletes. Furthermore, a significant relationship exists between poor sleep and health complaints with females at a higher risk of worsened health complaints and higher food cravings. Sleep screening and education interventions to enhance sleep in GAA athletes are advocated.

Food Cravings and Obesity in Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: Pathophysiological and Therapeutic Considerations.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age, constitutes a metabolic disorder frequently associated with obesity and insulin resistance (IR). Furthermore, women with PCOS often suffer from excessive anxiety and depression, elicited by low self-esteem due to obesity, acne, and hirsutism. These mood disorders are commonly associated with food cravings and binge eating. Hypothalamic signaling regulates appetite and satiety, deteriorating excessive food consumption. However, the hypothalamic function is incapable of compensating for surplus food in women with PCOS, leading to the aggravation of obesity and a vicious circle. Hyperandrogenism, IR, the reduced secretion of cholecystokinin postprandially, and leptin resistance defined by leptin receptors' knockout in the hypothalamus have been implicated in the pathogenesis of hypothalamic dysfunction and appetite dysregulation. Diet modifications, exercise, and psychological and medical interventions have been applied to alleviate food disorders, interrupting the vicious circle. Cognitive-behavioral intervention seems to be the mainstay of treatment, while the role of medical agents, such as GLP-1 analogs and naltrexone/bupropion, has emerged.

Food cravings after bariatric surgery: comparing laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass.

BACKGROUND: Research suggests that food choices, preferences, and tastes change after bariatric surgery, but evidence regarding changes in food cravings is mixed. OBJECTIVES: The primary aim of this cohort study was to compare food cravings during the first year following bariatric surgery in patients who had undergone sleeve gastrectomy (SG) versus Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB). SETTING: Integrated multispecialty health system, United States. METHODS: Patients aged ≥ 18 years seen between May 2017 and July 2019, provided informed consent, completed the Food Craving Inventory (FCI), and had ≥ 1 year of follow-up after undergoing primary SG or RYGB were included in the study. Secondary data captured included psychological and behavioral measures. Preoperative and postoperative (3, 6, 9, and 12 months) FCI scores of patients who underwent SG and RYGB were compared. RESULTS: Some attrition occurred postoperatively (N = 187 at baseline, 141 at 3 months, 108 at 6 months, 89 at 9 months, and 84 at 12 months). No significant relationship between pre- or postoperative food cravings and surgery type was found except on the carbohydrate subscale. Patients with higher preoperative food addiction symptoms were not more likely to experience an earlier reoccurrence of food cravings during the first 12 months after surgery. Likewise, patients with higher levels of preoperative depression and anxiety were not more likely to have early reoccurrence of food cravings during the first 12 months after surgery; however, those with higher PHQ9 scores at baseline had uniformly higher food craving scores at all timepoints (pre-surgery, 3 m, 6 m, 9 m, and 12 m). CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that food cravings in the year after bariatric surgery are equivalent by surgery type and do not appear to be related to preoperative psychological factors or eating behaviors. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III: Evidence obtained from well-designed cohort.

The effect of cognitive reappraisal on food craving and consumption: Does working memory capacity influence reappraisal ability? An event-related potential study.

Regulating cravings for unhealthy foods in favour of healthier options is essential for weight management. Cognitive reappraisal, which involves changing the meaning of a stimulus to modify its emotional impact, has shown promise for regulating food craving and consumption. Eighty participants were presented with high-calorie (HC) and low-calorie (LC) food pictures preceded by cues signalling instructions to naturally view the food (i.e., passive viewing; LOOK) or to imagine the future consequences of consuming that food (i.e., cognitive reappraisal; REGULATE). Participants' subjective craving and event-related potentials (ERPs) were measured, and food consumption after the task was assessed. Participants' working memory capacity (WMC) was measured with the automated Operation Span task. During cognitive reappraisal, cravings for HC foods decreased, whereas cravings for LC foods increased, compared to passive viewing. Cravings for LC and HC foods were correlated with consumptions of LC and HC foods, respectively. Occipital N1 (100-200ms) amplitudes were more negative for LC than for HC pictures, but were not modulated by strategy (LOOK or REGULATE), whereas early posterior negativity (EPN; 200-300ms) was not sensitive to food type (HC or LC) or strategy. Late positive potential (LPP; 400-1000ms) ERPs were largest in the HC-REGULATE condition, possibly due to cognitive processes induced by focusing on the consequences of unhealthy foods. Late LPP (1000-3000ms) was not affected by food type or strategy. LPP amplitudes were not correlated with cravings. WMC was weakly correlated with cravings for LC following reappraisal, suggesting that WMC may influence reappraisal ability. In sum, focusing on future consequences of eating may promote healthier food choices through craving regulation. Further research is needed to examine how regulatory effects evolve over time and how they relate to WMC and brain activity.

Imagine chocolate: The craving experience questionnaire in the food domain.

Measurement of food craving has gained relevance in the current obesity epidemic. The Craving Experience Questionnaire (CEQ) considers not only craving intensity but also cognitive intrusiveness and imagery vividness as separate craving factors and could thus refine food craving assessment. It is available in two versions with ten items each. The CEQ-F assesses craving frequency across specific time periods and the CEQ-S time-point specific craving strength. Across three independent studies, N = 533 participants completed the German chocolate CEQ-F referenced at the past year to operationalise trait-like craving. Among them, N = 402 also completed the German chocolate CEQ-S referenced at the current moment to operationalise state-like craving. Four-week test-retest reliability was measured. For external validity, we assessed self-reported chocolate consumption, body-mass-index, trait approach motivation, general imagery vividness, and the most widely used food craving questionnaire, namely the Food Cravings Questionnaires in a trait (FCQ-T-r) and state version (FCQ-S), as well as behavioural approach bias (reaction time-based measurement). The three-factor structure was replicated with excellent internal consistency for both CEQ-F and CEQ-S. Test-retest reliability was moderate for both CEQ versions. CEQ-F scores were related to higher levels of chocolate consumption, approach motivation, and FCQ-T-r scores, but not to body-mass-index, imagery vividness, or approach bias. CEQ-S scores were associated with FCQ-S scores and partly with approach bias, but not with approach motivation and imagery vividness. The current results support the factor structure, validity and reliability of the German chocolate CEQ-S and CEQ-F with questions remaining regarding the ability of the CEQ-S to measure state craving. Thus, CEQ-F and CEQ-S usefully contribute to food craving assessment.

GLP-1 Receptor Agonists and Related Mental Health Issues; Insights from a Range of Social Media Platforms Using a Mixed-Methods Approach.

The emergence of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs; semaglutide and others) now promises effective, non-invasive treatment of obesity for individuals with and without diabetes. Social media platforms' users started promoting semaglutide/Ozempic as a weight-loss treatment, and the associated increase in demand has contributed to an ongoing worldwide shortage of the drug associated with levels of non-prescribed semaglutide intake. Furthermore, recent reports emphasized some GLP-1 RA-associated risks of triggering depression and suicidal thoughts. Consistent with the above, we aimed to assess the possible impact of GLP-1 RAs on mental health as being perceived and discussed in popular open platforms with the help of a mixed-methods approach. Reddit posts yielded 12,136 comments, YouTube videos 14,515, and TikTok videos 17,059, respectively. Out of these posts/entries, most represented matches related to sleep-related issues, including insomnia (n = 620 matches); anxiety (n = 353); depression (n = 204); and mental health issues in general (n = 165). After the initiation of GLP-1 RAs, losing weight was associated with either a marked improvement or, in some cases, a deterioration, in mood; increase/decrease in anxiety/insomnia; and better control of a range of addictive behaviors. The challenges of accessing these medications were a hot topic as well. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study documenting if and how GLP-1 RAs are perceived as affecting mood, mental health, and behaviors. Establishing a clear cause-and-effect link between metabolic diseases, depression and medications is difficult because of their possible reciprocal relationship, shared underlying mechanisms and individual differences. Further research is needed to better understand the safety profile of these molecules and their putative impact on behavioral and non-behavioral addictions.

Obesity and hyperandrogenism are implicated with anxiety, depression and food cravings in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.

INTRODUCTION: PCOS is associated with mood/eating disorders. Negative body image due to obesity, acne, hirsutism seems to play significant role, but hormonal derangements are probably implicated. AIM: To investigate the relation between insulin resistance (IR), obesity and hyperandrogenism with mood and eating disorders in women with PCOS. METHODS: Forty-nine (60.5%) PCOS women and 32(39.5%) age- and BMI-matched healthy controls were enrolled. Emotional/food disorders were evaluated by using self-administered questionnaires: Eating Attitudes Test (EAT)-26, Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), Hamilton anxiety scale (HAS) and Food Craving Questionnaire-Trait (FCQ-T). RESULTS: The two groups had no significant differences regarding age, BMI and HOMA2-IR. PCOS women had significantly higher DHEA-S (p < 0.0001), Δ4Α (p < 0.0001) and Testosterone (p < 0.0001). When the two groups were subclassified according to the BMI, in lean (BMI < 25 kg/m2) or overweight (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2), no significant differences were found with respect to EAT-26 and HAS. BDI-II was associated with obesity (overweight vs lean PCOS: 20.5 ± 6.4 vs 9.8 ± 3.9; p = 0.037) and hyperandrogenism (overweight PCOS vs overweight controls: 20.5 ± 6.4 vs 14.8 ± 8.1; p < 0.0001; lean PCOS vs overweight controls: 16.7 ± 4.7 vs 14.8 ± 8.1; p = 0.01). Additionally, a significant correlation between BDI-II and DHEA-S (rho = 0.305; p = 0.006), Δ4Α (rho = 0.259; p = 0.02) and Testosterone (rho = 0.328; p = 0.003) was reported. FCQ-T was associated with obesity (overweight PCOS vs lean PCOS: 47.6 ± 9.9 vs 29.3 ± 8.9; p < 0.0001; overweight controls vs lean PCOS: 45.5 ± 15.7 vs 29.3 ± 8.9; p < 0.0001), whereas a correlation between FCQ-T and BMI (rho = 0.593; p = 0.0001), waist circumference (rho = 0.554; p = 0.0001) and HOMA2-IR (rho = 0.328; p = 0.003) was documented. CONCLUSIONS: Obesity and hyperandrogenism increase the risk of depression and food cravings in women with PCOS, leading to a vicious circle of further aggravation of obesity and metabolic syndrome.

Association of inflammation biomarkers with food cravings and appetite changes across the menstrual cycle.

IMPORTANCE: Premenstrual symptoms, including food cravings, are often a regular complaint among menstruating women. However, existing evidence regarding the biological mechanisms by which these food cravings occur remains unclear. Inflammation may play an essential role in the occurrence of these food cravings before menstruation. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the present study was to examine the associations between inflammatory markers and the risk of moderate/severe food cravings while accounting for changes in hormone levels and stress across the menstrual cycle. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: The BioCycle Study followed women (n = 259) aged 18-44 for two menstrual cycles. Food cravings (via questionnaire) were assessed up to four times per cycle. Each assessment corresponded to menses and mid-follicular, ovulation, and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle. A wide range of cytokine and chemokine levels (hsCRP, GCSF, GMCSF, IL-4, IL-6, RANTES, MIP1B, etc.) were assessed in blood samples collected at up to 8 visits per cycle, with visits timed using fertility monitors. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Cravings for chocolate, sweets, salty, and other foods, and changes in appetite were determined to estimate the odds of moderate or severe cravings. Associations between inflammatory markers and risk of reporting a moderate/severe craving symptom at each cycle visit was determined using weighted generalized linear models (e.g., marginal structural models). Models were adjusted for age, BMI, and race, as well as time-varying covariates such as estradiol, stress, leptin, and total energy intake, and accounted for repeated measures (i.e., multiple cycles per woman). Both inflammatory markers and reports of cravings were modeled to account for variation at each visit. RESULTS: An association between higher inflammatory biomarkers such as hsCRP, GCSF, GMCSF, IL-4, IL-6, RANTES, MIP, and increased risk of moderate/severe cravings were identified across the menstrual cycle all risk ratio>1, all CIs range 0.71-2.38. hsCRP retained statistical significance after false discovery rate correction with chocolate, sweet, and salty cravings, while GCSF, GMCSF, IL-6, and RANTES retained significance with chocolate and sweet cravings only. CONCLUSION: and Relevance: The results suggest a potential role of inflammation in food cravings and appetite changes across the menstrual cycle.

Eliciting real cravings with virtual food: Using immersive technologies to explore the effects of food stimuli in virtual reality.

In this paper, we explore the current technical possibilities of eating in virtual reality (VR) and show how this could be used to influence eating behaviors. Cue-based exposure therapy is a well-known method used to treat eating disorders. There are several benefits to using VR in combination with cue-based therapy. However, before VR-based cue-exposure can be used for therapeutic purposes, the ability of the VR environment to elicit craving responses in participants must be assessed. This was the objective of the first part of the study, where we assessed whether our VR environment elicited food craving responses in participants. Results showed that our VR environment elicited food craving responses: Salivation Magnitude, Food Craving State and Urge to Eat was significantly different from the neutral baseline. In addition, results showed that food cravings measured through the salivation magnitude in response to the virtual condition were not significantly different from the real condition, thus showing that VR had a comparable effect on producing food cravings. The second part of the study was conducted to determine whether the addition of olfactory and interaction cues in VR increased the development of food cravings. The results of this part showed that adding synthetic olfactory cues, paired with visual cues, to our system, provided a significant further increase in food cravings. Our results demonstrate that the use of food cues in VR can increase the development of food cravings and that it is possible to provide a simple yet convincing eating experience in VR. Inevitably, food interaction in VR is still underexplored territory and further research is needed to improve utility and application in disciplines related to food and eating.

The association between anxiety sensitivity and food cravings among individuals seeking treatment for weight-related behaviors.

BACKGROUND: A better understanding of risk-factors associated with state-like food cravings may be one clinically relevant component in an effort to better understand obesity. Existing work has shown anxiety sensitivity (AS) to be a significant risk factor for increased cravings across a variety of health behaviors (e.g., smoking, alcohol use). Yet, no work has examined the relationship between AS and state-like food cravings. Therefore, the current study sought to examine the association between AS and a variety of state-like food cravings, including: (1) an intense desire to eat, (2) anticipation of relief from negative states and feelings/improvement in mood that may result from eating, (3) obsessive preoccupation with food or lack of control over eating, and (4) craving as a physiological state. METHODS: Participants included 161 (Mage = 31.58, SD = 10.71; 60.9 % female) individuals seeking treatment for weight-related behaviors. RESULTS: Results indicated that elevated AS was associated with reinforcement-based and physiological food cravings. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that there may be clinical utility in screening for AS among individuals seeking treatment for weight-related behaviors in efforts to better understand specific types of food craving.

Neuroimaging and neuroendocrine insights into food cravings and appetite interventions in obesity.

This article reviews the previous studies on the distinction between food cravings and appetite, and how they are regulated by hormones and reflected in brain activity. Based on existing research, food cravings are defined as individual preferences influenced by hormones and psychological factors, which differ from appetite, as they are not necessarily related to hunger or nutritional needs. The article also evaluates the neuroimaging findings about food cravings, and interventions to reduce food cravings, such as mindfulness training, alternative sweeteners, non-invasive brain stimulation techniques, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and imaginal retraining, and points out their advantages, disadvantages, and limitations. Furthermore, the article delves into the potential future directions in the field, emphasizing the need for a neuroendocrine perspective, considerations for associated psychiatric disorders, innovative clinical interventions, and emerging therapeutic frontiers in obesity management. The article outlines the neuro-endocrine basis of food cravings, including ghrelin, leptin, melanocortin, oxytocin, glucagon-like peptide-1, baclofen, and other hormones and their brain regions of action. The article argues that food cravings are an important target for obesity, and more research is needed to explore their complex characteristics and mechanisms, and how to effectively interact with their neuro-endocrine pathways. The article provides a new perspective and approach to the prevention and treatment of obesity.

Behavioral Symptomatology in the Premenstruum.

OBJECTIVE: Sleep and eating behaviors are disturbed during the premenstrual phase of the menstrual cycle in a significant number of reproductive-age women. Despite their impact on the development and control of chronic health conditions, these behaviors are poorly understood. In the present study, we sought to identify affective and psychological factors which associate with premenstrual changes in sleeping and eating behaviors and assess how they impact functionality. METHODS: Fifty-seven women provided daily ratings of premenstrual symptomatology and functionality across two-three menstrual cycles (156 cycles total). For each participant and symptom, we subtracted the mean day +5 to +10 ("post-menstruum") ratings from mean day -6 to -1 ("pre-menstruum") ratings and divided this value by participant- and symptom-specific variance. We completed the statistical analysis using multivariate linear regression. RESULTS: Low interest was associated with a premenstrual increase in insomnia (p ≤ 0.05) and appetite/eating (p ≤ 0.05). Furthermore, insomnia was associated with occupational (p ≤ 0.001), recreational (p ≤ 0.001), and relational (p ≤ 0.01) impairment. CONCLUSIONS: Results of the present analysis highlight the importance of apathy (i.e., low interest) on the expression of behavioral symptomatology, as well as premenstrual insomnia on impairment. These findings can inform treatment approaches, thereby improving care for patients suffering from premenstrual symptomatology linked to chronic disease conditions.

Binge size and loss of control as correlates of eating behavior and psychopathology among individuals with binge eating disorder and higher weight.

Studies comparing individuals with loss of control (LOC) eating who do and do not have objectively large binge episodes have found that degree of LOC is more important than binge size to psychological and behavioral outcomes. However, the relative importance of these characteristics has not been investigated in a population with binge eating disorder (BED), who by definition all have objectively large binge episodes. Persons with BED and higher weight (N = 34) were enrolled in a BED treatment trial and completed the Loss of Control Over Eating Scale, the Eating Disorder Examination, and measures of eating behavior, mood, and quality of life. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated from measured height and weight. The size of the largest binge episode (measured in kilocalories) and degree of LOC were entered into multiple regression equations to determine their relationships with disordered eating symptoms, depression, quality of life, and BMI in this pilot study. Greater LOC had a stronger independent association than binge size with higher total eating psychopathology, shape dissatisfaction, hunger, food cravings and food addiction symptoms. Larger binge size had a stronger independent association than LOC with higher weight concern and lower general and social quality of life. Both characteristics were associated with higher eating concern and neither were associated with depression or BMI. Both binge size and degree of LOC are associated with important psychosocial treatment targets in patients with BED. Future research should validate the largest binge episode measurement method and replicate the present findings in a larger sample.

Development and Evaluation of a Virtual Reality Puzzle Game to Decrease Food Intake: Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Virtual reality (VR) has gained popularity in daily life, and VR food cues seem to elicit food cravings, similar to real food cues. However, little is known about the impact of VR food cues on actual food intake. OBJECTIVE: In real life (RL), exposure to food cues in a situation in which the desire to eat food interferes with the completion of a food-related task reduces the subsequent food intake (ie, the pre-exposure effect). In this study, we examine, on the one hand, whether the pre-exposure effect could be replicated in RL and, on the other hand, whether this effect could be extended to VR contexts. METHODS: The study used a 2 (stimulus type: food vs nonfood) × 2 (mode: VR vs RL) between-subject design (n=175). Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of the 4 conditions. RESULTS: We found the main effect of mode on food intake, with a higher food intake after both VR conditions than after RL conditions (P=.02). In addition, among female participants, we found that exposure to both food cues (ie, VR and RL) resulted in lower food intake than exposure to both nonfood cues (P=.05). In contrast, this effect was not observed among male participants (P=.34). Additionally, VR and RL cues generated similar emotional and behavioral responses (eg, arousal and game difficulty). CONCLUSIONS: We were unable to replicate the exposure effect in our complete sample. Subgroup analyses, however, showed that for women, exposure to food cues (either in VR or in RL) reduces food intake, indicating that a VR pre-exposure procedure may effectively be applied exclusively for women. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05169996; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05169996.

Do Overweight People Have Worse Cognitive Flexibility? Cues-Triggered Food Craving May Have a Greater Impact.

BACKGROUND: Overweight people have been revealed to have poor cognitive flexibility. Cognitive flexibility reflects proactive and reactive control abilities. However, the impairment had not been explicitly positioned at the cognitive stage. Therefore, this study provides increased support for impairment of cognitive flexibility due to overweight. METHOD: The study included 34 overweight and 35 normal-weight participants. They were required to complete the food and flower target AX-continuous performance test (AX-CPT), including the resting-state fMRI and cue-triggered food craving subscales. We compared the performance difference between the two tasks. Furthermore, we investigated whether the cue-triggered food cravings and the corresponding brain regions mediated the effect of overweight on the two control mechanisms. RESULT: Significant differences were found only in the food target AX-CPT task, where overweight participants performed worse. Cue-triggered food cravings mediated this relationship. Additionally, we found that the brain regions associated with cue-triggered food cravings (bilateral SFG) can completely mediate the relationship between BMI and the z-value of the fat mass index and sensitivity to proactive control. CONCLUSION: In the food target task, overweight participants performed worse in both control mechanisms. Moreover, we also revealed the potential mechanism by which being overweight might affect the two control mechanisms through cue-triggered food cravings.

Associations of sleep with food cravings and loss-of-control eating in youth: An ecological momentary assessment study.

BACKGROUND: Inconsistent sleep patterns may promote excess weight gain by increasing food cravings and loss-of-control (LOC)-eating; however, these relationships have not been elucidated in youth. OBJECTIVE: We tested whether sleep duration and timing were associated with food cravings and LOC-eating. METHOD: For 14 days, youths wore actigraphy monitors to assess sleep and reported severity of food cravings and LOC-eating using ecological momentary assessment. Generalized linear mixed models tested the associations between weekly and nightly shifts in facets of sleep (i.e., duration, onset, midpoint, and waketime) and next-day food cravings and LOC-eating. Models were re-run adjusting for relevant covariates (e.g., age, sex, adiposity). RESULTS: Among 48 youths (12.88 ± 2.69 years, 68.8% female, 33.3% with overweight/obesity), neither weekly nor nightly facets of sleep were significantly associated with food cravings (ps = 0.08-0.93). Youths with shorter weekly sleep duration (est. ß = -0.31, p = 0.004), earlier weekly midpoints (est. ß = -0.47, p = 0.010) and later weekly waketimes (est. ß = 0.49, p = 0.010) reported greater LOC-eating severity; findings persisted in adjusted models. CONCLUSIONS: In youth, weekly, but not nightly, shifts in multiple facets of sleep were associated with LOC-eating severity; associations were not significant for food cravings. Sleep should be assessed as a potentially modifiable target in paediatric LOC-eating and obesity prevention programs.

Snacking behavior differs between evening and morning chronotype individuals but no differences are observed in overall energy intake, diet quality, or food cravings.

There is a growing body of literature that links chronotype to certain undesirable eating behaviors. However, the relationship between chronotype and dietary intake is poorly characterized among adults in the United States (U.S.). This cross-sectional study examined the associations among chronotype, snacking habits, dietary intake and quality, and food cravings. One-hundred adults living in the U.S. completed the study. Based on the Horne-Östberg Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire score, an individual was categorized as having either a morning (M)-type, intermediate (I)-type, or evening (E)-type chronotype. Snack intake was assessed using a previously published specialized food frequency questionnaire. Sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intake was assessed using the updated version of the Beverage Intake Questionnaire-15. Alcohol misuse was measured using the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test-Consumption. Diet quality was obtained using the Diet History Questionnaire III. The validated General Food Cravings Questionnaire-Trait measured participants' food cravings. E-type individuals reported consuming snacks more often over the course of a week than M-types (p = .002) but not I-types. In terms of timing of snacking, E-type individuals consumed more snacks after dinner than M-types (p < .001). E-type individuals consumed more energy-dense snacks (p = .005), especially candies (p = .005), than M-types. However, there were no significant differences in healthy snack frequency, diet quality, energy and macronutrient intake, SSB consumption, alcohol misuse, or food cravings among chronotypes (p > .05, for all). In conclusion, E-type individuals consumed snacks more frequently and later than M-types; however, chronotype was not associated with an individual's energy intake, diet quality, and food cravings, which suggests that chronotype is negligibly associated with weight gain-related behaviors in this population.

The ironic effects of dietary restraint in situations that undermine self-regulation.

Dietary restraint, defined as the cognitive effort to restrict eating, can paradoxically make individuals more susceptible to unhealthy eating when their ability to self-regulate is threatened. Past experiments have found that, in situations that elicit low self-control and/or unhealthy cravings, participants with higher dietary restraint eat more than those with lower restraint. However, these relationships have never been examined in a free-living environment. The current daily diary study examined if dietary restraint would exacerbate the associations between poor self-control and unhealthy cravings with overconsumption, namely, eating more than usual and binge eating. College women (N = 121, M age = 19) reported their restrained eating behavior and completed seven daily surveys. Multilevel analyses showed a significant interaction between dietary restraint and daily self-control on eating more than usual (b = -0.13, p = .001) and binge eating (b = -0.22, p < .001). Lower daily self-control was associated with eating more than usual and with more binge eating that day, but only among women with higher dietary restraint. Dietary restraint also moderated the effect of cravings on eating more than usual (b = 0.10, p = .007); this relationship was stronger for women with higher restraint. Stronger cravings were associated with more binge eating regardless of restraint. Results suggest that situations that undermine self-control are more strongly associated with overeating among those with higher dietary restraint. Findings can inform strategies to reduce overconsumption among restrained eaters.

"The thought is gonna come and the thought is gonna go": A qualitative study on how non-meditators learn and apply brief mindfulness-based instructions for food cravings.

While brief mindfulness-based interventions have emerged as tools to modulate automatic responding in various domains of health and wellbeing, findings are primarily based on quantitative experimental research. However, these group-level findings do not capture the rich subjective experiences of individuals learning mindfulness. In the following qualitative study, we explored how non-meditators learn and apply brief mindfulness instructions in the domain of food cravings. Ten non-meditators listened to 'normal viewing' instructions, which asked them to view foods in the way that they normally would. They then viewed a video of attractive foods, and were interviewed about their experiences of learning and applying the instructions. Next, participants listened to a 5-min recording of mindfulness instructions, viewed another food video while applying the mindfulness instructions, and were interviewed again. The data were analysed using thematic analysis. When participants applied brief mindfulness, their relationship to the food stimuli changed such that they started perceiving their experiences as transient. Certain factors (e.g., use of visual metaphors) and processes (e.g., listening to the 'normal viewing' instructions first) facilitated this change. The ease of applying the instructions fluctuated with food preferences and perceived strength of cravings. Participants reported that they would apply the instructions in daily life if they felt a need for this, including in domains other than food. However, they anticipated challenges such as remembering and finding time to apply. Our findings highlight the specific aspects that influence how brief mindfulness instructions are learned and applied. These insights may change how brief mindfulness is studied empirically, and may inform the development of simple and empowering techniques that can promote wellbeing in daily life.

Food cravings and loss-of-control eating in youth: Associations with gonadal hormone concentrations.

OBJECTIVE: Among youth with overweight, food cravings (FC) are associated with loss-of-control (LOC)-eating, but the impact of sex-associated biological characteristics on this relationship is unknown. We examined whether sex and gonadal hormone concentrations moderated the relationships between FC and LOC-eating severity among healthy boys and girls across the weight strata in natural and laboratory environments. METHOD: Using ecological momentary assessment (EMA), FC, and LOC-eating severity were reported 3-5 times a day for 2 weeks. In the laboratory, participants reported FC, consumed lunch from a buffet test meal designed to simulate LOC-eating, and rated LOC-eating severity during the meal. RESULTS: Eighty-seven youth (13.0 ± 2.7 years, 58.6% female, 32.2% with overweight/obesity) participated. EMA measured general and momentary FC were positively associated with LOC-eating severity (ps < .01), with no differences by sex (ps = .21-.93). Estradiol and progesterone significantly moderated the relationships between FC and LOC-eating such that general FC and LOC-eating severity were only positively associated among girls with greater (vs. lower) estradiol (p = .01), and momentary FC and LOC-eating severity were only positively associated among girls with greater (vs. lower) progesterone (p = .01). Boys' testosterone did not significantly moderate the associations between FC and LOC-eating severity (ps = .36-.97). At the test meal, pre-meal FC were positively related to LOC-eating severity (p < .01), without sex or hormonal moderation (ps = .20-.64). DISCUSSION: FC were related to LOC-eating severity in boys and girls. In the natural environment, gonadal hormones moderated this relationship in girls, but not boys. The mechanisms through which gonadal hormones might affect the relationship between FC and LOC-eating warrant investigation.