Remote sensing monitoring of glacier area and volume changes in glacier-fed mountainous watershed on the Northern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau under climate change.

Steady glacier runoff is related to the security and resilience of water resources in meltwater recharge basins, so the status and change of glaciers and their response to climate change in the upper reaches have received widespread concerns. Here, the spatiotemporal characteristics of glacier wastage in the Upper Reaches of Shule River Basin (URSRB) driven by climate change were analyzed based on multi-source and multi-temporal remotely sensed images. Firstly, we extracted multi-temporal glacier outlines from the Landsat time series data using Google Earth Engine (GEE) for seven different periods every approximately 5 years from 1990 to 2020. The spatiotemporal analysis of URSRB glaciers demonstrates a sustained reduction in glacier area from 481.07 ± 24.24 km2 in 1990 to 384.05 ± 22.71 km2 in 2020, corresponding to a glacier shrinkage rate of - 0.67 ± 0.23%/year, characterized by considerable temporal variability. Secondly, multi-temporal DEMs derived from ASTER stereo imagery spanning from 2000 to 2020 were used to compute the glacier surface elevation changes and determine the glacier mass loss. The overall glacier surface elevation change rate was - 0.32 ± 0.14 m/year, equivalent to a mass balance of - 0.28 ± 0.12 m w.e./year. Lastly, to better apprehend the long-term response of URSRB glaciers to climate change, studies on climate change were carried out based on the EAR5-Land reanalysis dataset. The long-term trend of glacier wastage is attributed to the increase in summer temperature, and the negative effects of increased summer temperature on glaciers exceeded the positive effects of increased annual precipitation. In summary, glaciers in the URSRB have experienced a significant area reduction and accelerated mass loss against the backdrop of climatic warming and humidification.

Microplastics in glaciers of Tibetan Plateau: Characteristics and potential sources.

Microplastics (MPs) in glaciers of remote areas are a hot topic linking the global transport of atmospheric MPs. The Tibetan Plateau (TP) holds large volume of glaciers, providing an effective way to trace MPs transport. Moreover, MPs in glaciers may have adverse effects on the local ecosystem and human health. In this study, we investigate MPs in snowpits collected from six glaciers across the different domain of the TP. The average abundance of MPs in six snowpits is 339.22 ± 51.85 items L-1 (with size ≥10 µm) measured by Agilent 8700 Laser Direct Infrared Chemical Imaging System (LDIR), represented by relatively high MPs abundance in the southern TP and low in the northern TP. The polymers with lower density, namely polyethylene (PE), polyamide (PA), and rubber, are the main MPs types, which are predominated by fragments with sizes smaller than 100 µm in each snowpit. Sources of MPs on glaciers include local tourism and vehicle traffic emissions of MPs. Meanwhile, long-range atmospheric transport of MPs from surrounded regions cannot be ignored. Backward trajectory analysis indicates cross-boundary transport of atmospheric MPs from South Asia play an important role on MPs deposited onto TP glaciers. Analysis further reveals that MPs in glaciers are associated with atmospheric mineral dust deposition. This study provides new data for the investigation of MPs in glaciers of remote areas, and a reference for studying MPs in the ice cores of TP glaciers.

Paleopteran molecular clock: Time drift and recent acceleration.

Applying BEAST v1.10.4, we constructed a Bayesian Inference tree comprising 322 taxa, primarily representing Paleoptera (Odonata and Ephemeroptera; Pterygota), Zygentoma and Archaeognatha (Apterygota; paraphyly), and Neoptera (Plecoptera; Pterygota), based on a 2685 bp sequence dataset. Our analyses revealed that robust dating required the incorporation of both Quaternary and pre-Quaternary dates. To achieve this, our dating incorporated a 1.55 Ma (Quaternary) geological event (the formation of the Ryukyu Islands) and a set of chronologically well-founded fossil dates, spanning from up to 400 Ma (Devonian) for the stem Archaeognatha, 320 Ma (Carboniferous) for the crown of Paleoptera, 300 Ma (Carboniferous) for the crown Ephemeroptera, and 280 Ma (Permian) for the crown Odonata, down to 1.76 Ma (Quaternary) for Calopteryx japonica, encompassing a total of 22 calibration points (events: 6, fossils: 16; Quaternary: 7, pre-Quaternary: 15). The resulting dated tree aligns with previous research, albeit with some dates being overestimated. This overestimation was mainly due to the lack of Quaternary calibration and the exclusive dependence on pre-Quaternary calibration, though the application of maximum age constraints also played a role. Our minimum age dating demonstrates that the molecular clock did not uniformly progress, rendering rate dating an inapplicable approach. We observed that the base substitution rate is time-dependent, with an exponential increase evident from around 20 Ma (Miocene) to the present time, exceeding an order of magnitude. The extensive radiation and speciation of Insecta and Paleoptera, potentially resulting from the severe climatic changes associated with the Quaternary, including the commencement of glacial and interglacial cycles, may have significantly contributed to this increase in base substitution rates. Additionally, we identified a potential peak in base substitution rates during the Carboniferous period, around 320 million years ago, possibly corresponding to the Late Paleozoic Ice Age.

Assessing climate-driven impacts on Karakoram glacier surge: A geospatial analysis highlighting Shishper Glacial Lake outburst flood events (2019-2022) as prime example.

The Northern Areas of Pakistan encompass the Hindukush, Karakoram, and Himalayan mountain ranges witnessing glacier surging, exacerbated by climate warming. As glaciers rapidly melt, ravines experience heightened blockage and migration, obstructing stream discharges and forming expansive ice-dammed lakes. The rupture of these natural dams triggers Glacial Lake Outburst Floods downstream in the primary glacier's ravine. The catastrophic Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in 2022 across the Karakoram ranges in Northern Pakistan prompted this study. It focuses on Shishper Glacier Lake. The aim is to provide complete flood observations and their devastating effects on downstream communities. Analysis of Landsat 08 Imagery reveals the evolution of Shishper Glacier Lake from its initiation in November 2018 to the catastrophic GLOF in May 2022. The lake reached a maximum area of 0.32 km2 in 2019 and its successive breaches on June 22, 2019, and May 29, 2020, reduced it to 0.018 km2. Draining continued until July 2021, shrinking the lake area to 0.009 km2. A noteworthy 2.73 °C temperature increase in 2022 correlated with an expansion of the lake area to 0.33 km2, culminating in the GLOF on May 7th, 2022. The study emphasizes the critical need for mapping, assessing, and monitoring surging glaciers and glacier-formed lakes in the Karakoram ranges to safeguard downstream communities from potential hazards.

Ecological interactions in glacier environments: a review of studies on a model Alpine glacier.

Glaciers host a variety of cold-adapted taxa, many of which have not yet been described. Interactions among glacier organisms are even less clear. Understanding ecological interactions is crucial to unravelling the functioning of glacier ecosystems, particularly in light of current glacier retreat. Through a review of the existing literature, we aim to provide a first overview of the biodiversity, primary production, trophic networks, and matter flow of a glacier ecosystem. We use the Forni Glacier (Central Italian Alps) - one of the best studied alpine glaciers in the world - as a model system for our literature review and integrate additional original data. We reveal the importance of allochthonous organic matter inputs, of Cyanobacteria and eukaryotic green algae in primary production, and the key role of springtails (Vertagopus glacialis) on the glacier surface in sustaining populations of two apex terrestrial predators: Nebria castanea (Coleoptera: Carabidae) and Pardosa saturatior (Araneae: Lycosidae). The cryophilic tardigrade Cryobiotus klebelsbergi is the apex consumer in cryoconite holes. This short food web highlights the fragility of nodes represented by invertebrates, contrasting with structured microbial communities in all glacier habitats. Although further research is necessary to quantify the ecological interactions of glacier organisms, this review summarises and integrates existing knowledge about the ecological processes on alpine glaciers and supports the importance of glacier-adapted organisms in providing ecosystem services.

Radiological and elemental composition of cryoconite and glacier mice from Vatnajökull, Iceland.

Cryoconite has been demonstrated to be an efficient accumulator of some classes of contaminants on glaciers in both mountain and polar environments, however the accumulation of contaminants in cryoconite in Iceland has received very little attention to date. To understand the spatial variability of natural and anthropogenic fallout radionuclides and metals on glaciers in Iceland, we present the first study of this region including both cryoconite from three glaciers: Virkisjökull; Skaftafellsjökull; and Falljökull, together with moss balls ('glacier mice') from Falljökull. The cryoconite samples and glacier mice were analysed using XRF spectrometry to assess their elemental composition and gamma spectrometry to identify, and quantify, fallout radionuclides, primarily 7Be, 137Cs, 241Am, excess 210Pb, and 40K. The results revealed that the cryoconite samples had similar compositions, influenced by local geology and natural sources of volcanic ash and dust. Higher concentrations of radionuclides and heavy metals were found in both cryoconite and glacier mice compared to control samples comprising nearby proglacial sediments. In comparison to other glaciers in the Northern Hemisphere, however, cryoconite from Icelandic glaciers contains some of the lowest activity concentrations of key radionuclides. Consequently, cryoconite deposits that are released and diluted during the melt and retreat of Icelandic glaciers are unlikely to be of environmental concern following transport to proglacial areas.

Distinct influences of altitude on microbiome and antibiotic resistome assembly in a glacial river ecosystem of Mount Everest.

The profound influences of altitude on aquatic microbiome were well documented. However, differences in the responses of different life domains (bacteria, microeukaryotes, viruses) and antibiotics resistance genes (ARGs) in glacier river ecosystems to altitude remain unknown. Here, we employed shotgun metagenomic and amplicon sequencing to characterize the altitudinal variations of microbiome and ARGs in the Rongbu River, Mount Everest. Our results indicated the relative influences of stochastic processes on microbiome and ARGs assembly in water and sediment were in the following order: microeukaryotes < ARGs < viruses < bacteria. Moreover, distinct assembly patterns of the microbiome and ARGs were found in response to differences in altitude, the latter of which shift from deterministic to stochastic processes with increasing differences in altitude. Partial least squares path modeling revealed that mobile genetic elements (MGEs) and viral ß-diversity were the major factors influencing the ARG abundances. Taken together, our work revealed that altitude-caused environmental changes led to significant changes in the composition and assembly processes of the microbiome and ARGs, while ARGs had a unique response pattern to altitude. Our findings provide novel insights into the impacts of altitude on the biogeographic distribution of microbiome and ARGs, and the associated driving forces in glacier river ecosystems.

Analysis of lake changes and their influence factors in the three river regions from 2000 to 2020 in the Sanjiangyuan Region, China.

An important factor for investigating climate change in the Sanjiangyuan is the evolution of the spatio-temporal pattern of lakes in this region. The present study used the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform to extract lakes from 2000 to 2020. The present approach created a lake distribution dataset yearly and analyzed spatial and temporal patterns over 20 years. The analysis of lakes focused on the reaction of the Sanjiangyuan Lakes area to changes in climate, glaciers, and permafrost. The findings indicated that the Sanjiangyuan region contains 143 lakes, the majority of which are predominantly small, measuring 1-10 km2. The small lakes account for 60.14 % of the total and are primarily located in the source regions of the Yangtze River and Yellow River. The findings demonstrated that the Sanjiangyuan lakes experienced a significant expansion over the past two decades, particularly from 2011 to 2020. These lakes are divided into expanded, atrophic, and stable categories. Expanded lakes showed significant inter-annual trends in expansion, while atrophic lakes showed smaller fluctuations. The area of stable lakes experienced a consistent decline after 2010, despite a consistent expansion tendency from 2001 to 2010. Moreover, the results indicated that alterations in the size of glaciers and ice reserves in the Sanjiangyuan region have had the greatest influence on the fluctuation in lake area. Among the factors that affect the climate, temperature had the most significant effect on the change in lake area, followed by precipitation.

Endometabolic profiling of pigmented glacier ice algae: the impact of sample processing.

INTRODUCTION: Glacier ice algae, mainly Ancylonema alaskanum and Ancylonema nordenskiöldi, bloom on Greenland Ice Sheet bare ice surfaces. They significantly decrease surface albedo due to their purple-brown pigmentation, thus increasing melt. Little is known about their metabolic adaptation and factors controlling algal growth dynamics and pigment formation. A challenge in obtaining such data is the necessity of melting samples, which delays preservation and introduces bias to metabolomic analysis. There is a need to evaluate the physiological response of algae to melting and establish consistent sample processing strategies for metabolomics of ice microbial communities. OBJECTIVES: To address the impact of sample melting procedure on metabolic characterization and establish a processing and analytical workflow for endometabolic profiling of glacier ice algae. METHODS: We employed untargeted, high-resolution mass spectrometry and tested the effect of sample melt temperature (10, 15, 20 °C) and processing delay (up to 49 h) on the metabolome and lipidome, and complemented this approach with cell counts (FlowCam), photophysiological analysis (PAM) and diversity characterization. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: We putatively identified 804 metabolites, with glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids and fatty acyls being the most prominent superclasses (> 50% of identified metabolites). Among the polar metabolome, carbohydrates and amino acid-derivatives were the most abundant. We show that 8% of the metabolome is affected by melt duration, with a pronounced decrease in betaine membrane lipids and pigment precursors, and an increase in phospholipids. Controlled fast melting at 10 °C resulted in the highest consistency, and is our recommendation for future supraglacial metabolomics studies.

Incorporating glacier processes into hydrological simulations in the headwaters of the Yangtze and yellow Rivers.

Contemporary hydrological models often oversimplify or neglect the effects of glacier ablation on watershed hydrological processes, leading to inaccurate simulations. To address this issue, we introduce a glacier ablation module that incorporates glacier ablation, sublimation, meltwater refreezing, and snow accumulation, integrated with the fully distributed hydrological model ESSI-3, forming the Glacier-ESSI-3 model. Application of the Glacier-ESSI-3 model in the headwaters of the Yangtze River (HYaR) and Yellow River (HYeR) demonstrates superior accuracy compared to the ESSI-3 model, effectively capturing the impact of glacier ablation on hydrological dynamics. Validation with remotely sensed data of snow cover and glacier dynamics confirms the model's efficacy in reproducing actual conditions in both watersheds. The results indicate that snow meltwater contributes more significantly to runoff than glacier meltwater, and the HYaR exhibiting a larger glacier meltwater contribution than the HYeR. Over time, the contribution rate of snow+glacier meltwater to runoff in the HYaR shows a fluctuating upward trend (10.04 % ± 1.13 % to 25.02 % ± 2.80 %), while it remains relatively stable in the HYeR (6.83 % ± 1.13 % to 10.19 % ± 0.89 %). This study highlights the critical role of glacier ablation in hydrological processes within glacierized watersheds. The Glacier-ESSI-3 model proves to be a robust tool for enhancing hydrological simulations in cold plateau regions, providing valuable insights into the intricate interactions between glaciers and hydrological dynamics.

Glacier mice as a temporary sink for fallout radionuclides and heavy metals on the Norwegian glacier Austerdalsbreen.

Glacier mice are peculiar rolling or stationary moss balls found on the surface of some glaciers. They may harbour an ecological habitat for cold-adapted invertebrates and microorganisms, but little is known about their potential to accumulate and disseminate harmful elements and substances. In this study, we investigate the presence of fallout radionuclides (137Cs, 238Pu, 239Pu, 240Pu, 210Pb) and heavy metals (Pb, As, Hg, Cd) in glacier mice and compare the results to bryophytes from adjacent glacier ecosystems. Samples were collected at Austerdalsbreen, a Norwegian outlet glacier from Jostedalsbreen ice cap. Maximum activity concentrations for bryophytes are 552 ± 12 Bq kg-1 for 137Cs, 3485 ± 138 Bq kg-1 for 210Pb, 0.0223 ± 0.065 Bq kg-1 for 238Pu and 4.34 ± 0.43 Bq kg-1 for 239+240Pu while maximum heavy metals concentrations are 70.5 mg kg-1 for Pb, 1.0 mg kg-1 for As, 1.6 mg kg-1 for Hg and 0.13 mg kg-1 for Cd. Maximum activity concentrations in cryconite are 1973.4 ± 5.0 Bq kg-1 for 137Cs, 3632 ± 593 Bq kg-1 for 210Pb, 0.51 ± 0.11 Bq kg-1 for 238Pu and 13.1 ± 1.4 Bq kg-1 for 239+240Pu and maximum heavy metal concentrations are 50.4 mg kg-1 for Pb, 3.4 mg kg-1 for As, 1.5 mg kg-1 for Hg and 0.082 mg kg-1 for Cd. We find that glacier mice show lower activity concentrations of radionuclides compared to cryoconite. The major source of plutonium isotopes is related to global fallout, whereas detected radio-cesium may be additionally affected by post-Chernobyl fallout to an unknown extent. Comparison between glacier surface and adjacent glacial habitats shows higher concentrations of heavy metals in glacier mice on the glacier ice surface and medial moraines compared to bryophytes in the glacier forefield. Glacier mice exported from a receding glacier may affect the cycling of radioactive and metal pollutants in developing proglacial ecosystems.

Eight genome sequences of bacterial, environmental isolates from Canada Glacier, Antarctica.

Sediments in cryoconite holes and meltwater streams in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, provide both substrates and conditions that support life in an arid polar desert. Here, we report the genomic sequences of eight environmental, bacterial isolates from Canada Glacier cryoconite holes and stream. These isolates span three major phyla.

Biomass burning records of the Shulehe Glacier No. 4 from Qilian Mountains, Northeastern Tibetan Plateau.

Biomass burning play a key role in the global carbon cycle by altering the atmospheric composition, and affect regional and global climate. Despite its importance, a very few high-resolution records are available worldwide, especially for recent climate change. This study analyzes levoglucosan, a specific tracer of biomass burning emissions, in a 38-year ice core retrieved from the Shulehe Glacier No. 4, northeastern Tibetan Plateau. The levoglucosan concentration in the Shulehe Glacier No. 4 ice core ranged from 0.1 to 55 ng mL-1, with an average concentration of 8 ± 8 ng mL-1. The concentrations showed a decreasing trend from 2002 to 2018. Meanwhile, regional wildfire activities in Central Asian also exhibited a declining trend during the same period, suggesting the potential correspondence between levoglucosan concentration of the Shulehe Glacier No. 4 ice core and the fire activity of Central Asia. Furthermore, a positive correlation also exists between the levoglucosan concentration of the Shulehe Glacier No. 4 ice core and the wildfire counts in Central Asia from 2002 to 2018. While backward air mass trajectory analysis and fire spots data showed a higher distribution of fire counts in South Asia compared to Central Asia, but the dominance of westerly circulation in the northern TP throughout the year. Therefore, the levoglucosan in the Shulehe Glacier No. 4 provides clear evidence of Central Asian wildfire influence on Tibetan Plateau glaciers through westerlies. This highlights a great importance of ice core data for wildfire history reconstruction in the Tibetan Plateau Glacier regions.

Declining glacier cover drives changes in aquatic macroinvertebrate biodiversity in the Cordillera Blanca, Perú.

Ongoing climate change threatens the biodiversity of glacier-fed river ecosystems worldwide through shifts in water availability and timing, temperature, chemistry, and channel stability. However, tropical glacier-fed rivers have received little attention compared to those in temperate and Arctic biomes, despite their unique biodiversity potentially responding differently due to additional stress from higher altitude locations thus lower oxygen availability, diurnal freeze-thaw cycles, and annual monsoon rainfall disturbances. However, tropical glacier-fed rivers have received little attention compared to those in temperate and Arctic biomes, despite their unique biodiversity potentially responding differently due to additional stress from higher altitude locations thus lower oxygen availability, diurnal freeze-thaw cycles, and annual monsoon rainfall disturbances. This study quantified aquatic biodiversity responses to decreasing glacier cover in the Cordillera Blanca range of the Peruvian Andes. Ten rivers were studied along a gradient of decreasing glacier cover in the Parón, Huaytapallana, and Llanganuco basins, with a specific focus on macroinvertebrates and physicochemical parameters in both the dry and wet seasons. We found higher temperatures, more stable and lower turbidity rivers as glacier cover decreased, which were related significantly to higher local diversity and lower ß-diversity. Analysis of similarity revealed significant differences in the macroinvertebrate community among rivers with high, medium, or low glacier cover, illustrating turnover from specialists to generalists as glacial influence decreased. Redundancy analysis demonstrated that there were more species found to prefer stable beds and water temperatures in medium and low glacier cover in a catchment rivers. However, certain taxa in groups such as Paraheptagyia, Orthocladiinae, Anomalocosmoecus, and Limonia may be adapted to high glacial influence habitats and at risk of glacier retreat. Although species composition was different to other biomes, the Cordillera Blanca rivers showed similar benthic macroinvertebrate biodiversity responses to glacier retreat, supporting the hypothesis that climate change will have predictable effects on aquatic biodiversity in mountain ranges worldwide.

Repeat pass imaging-based velocity estimation of Siachen glacier in J&K Himalaya using Sentinel-2 and Landsat-8 data: A comparison with SAR observations.

In this study optical data from satellites Sentinel-2 (S-2), Landsat-8 (L-8), and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data from Sentinel-1(S-1) have been used to estimate the surface velocity of the Siachen Glacier in J&K Himalaya. Repeat-pass optical and SAR data have been processed employing sub-pixel offset tracking (SOT) approach to decipher surface velocity of glaciers during 2013-2018. It is observed that SOT derived 2-D surface velocity using S-2 and L-8 data pairs show more than 70 % correlation over the entire stretch of the glacier. High correlation among velocities from S-2 and L-8 over two years validates one sensor against another for glacier surface movement studies in the Himalaya. This study reveals that the velocity of the glacier varies from ∼120 ma-1 to ∼151 ma-1 during 2013-2018. This study results the movement of glacier using optical sensor and SAR sensor over same geographical zone and similar time zone to evaluate the feature extraction and sensor impact on feature extraction. We have found that all sensors have produced similar results, since data is collected near time frame.

Evolution of the Lower Barun lake and its exposure to potential mass movement slopes in the Nepal Himalaya.

The Lower Barun Lake, the largest glacier-fed lake in the Nepal Himalaya, has been designated as critically or highly vulnerable to Glacier Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) due to the lake's massive volume and steep side walls that are susceptible to mass movements. The current study estimates the future evolution of the lake's extent and its exposure to potential avalanche under different climate scenarios by simulating the evolution of the Lower Barun glacier, which feeds the lake. We then assess this exposure (i) at the lake's current extent, (ii) when the lake length grows to 75 % of its maximum length, and (iii) when the lake length reaches its maximum possible length. We use a mass conservation based numerical flowline model for our analyses. The model was forced by the glacier surface mass balance (SMB) and meteorological data collected from weather stations in Kathmandu, Nepal and Darjeeling, India. Modelled lake lengths matched measured lengths within an RMSE of ∼200 m. Analyses show that under SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5 scenarios, the lake will reach its maximum length by 2075 ± 2 and 2061 ± 1, respectively. The largest uncertainty in future lake length fluctuations is approximately 200 m. Our study reveals that in current conditions, the zone where the angle of reach of potential avalanches is highest lies on the slopes along the right shore (south side) of the lake. The angle of reach shifts upstream and steepens-and the mass movement hazard increases-as the lake grows in the future.

Metagenome-assembled genome of the glacier alga Ancylonema yields insights into the evolution of streptophyte life on ice and land.

Contemporary glaciers are inhabited by streptophyte algae that balance photosynthesis and growth with tolerance of low temperature, desiccation and UV radiation. These same environmental challenges have been hypothesised as the driving force behind the evolution of land plants from streptophyte algal ancestors in the Cryogenian (720-635 million years ago). We sequenced, assembled and analysed the metagenome-assembled genome of the glacier alga Ancylonema nordenskiöldii to investigate its adaptations to life in ice, and whether this represents a vestige of Cryogenian exaptations. Phylogenetic analysis confirms the placement of glacier algae within the sister lineage to land plants, Zygnematophyceae. The metagenome-assembled genome is characterised by an expansion of genes involved in tolerance of high irradiance and UV light, while lineage-specific diversification is linked to the novel screening pigmentation of glacier algae. We found no support for the hypothesis of a common genomic basis for adaptations to ice and to land in streptophytes. Comparative genomics revealed that the reductive morphological evolution in the ancestor of Zygnematophyceae was accompanied by reductive genome evolution. This first genome-scale data for glacier algae suggests an Ancylonema-specific adaptation to the cryosphere, and sheds light on the genome evolution of land plants and Zygnematophyceae.

Historical reconstruction of glacier mass balance and its contribution to water resources in the Sawir Mountains from 2000 to 2020.

Glacial changes are crucial to regional water resources and ecosystems in the Sawir Mountains. However, glacial changes, including the mass balance and glacial meltwater of the Sawir Mountains, have sparsely been reported. Three model calibration strategies were constructed including a regression model based on albedo and in-situ mass balance of Muz Taw Glacier (A-Ms), regression model based on albedo and geodetic mass balance of valley, cirque, and hanging glaciers (A-Mr), and degree-day model (DDM) to obtain a reliable glacier mass balance in the Sawir Mountains and provide the latest understanding in the contribution of glacial meltwater runoff to regional water resources. The results indicated that the glacial albedo reduction was significant from 2000 to 2020 for the entire Sawir Mountains, with a rate of 0.015 (10a)-1, and the spatial pattern was higher in the east compared to the west. Second, the three strategies all indicated that the glacier mass balance has been continuously negative during the past 20 periods, and the average annual glacier mass balance was -1.01 m w.e. Third, the average annual glacial meltwater runoff in the Sawir Mountains from 2000 to 2020 was 22 × 106 m3, and its contribution to streamflow was 25.81 % from 2000 to 2018. The glacier contribution rates in the Ulkun- Ulastu, Lhaster, and Kendall River basins were 31.37 %, 22.51 %, and 19.27 %, respectively.

Ecological "Windows of opportunity" influence biofilm prokaryotic diversity differently in glacial and non-glacial Alpine streams.

In glacier-fed streams, the Windows of Opportunity (WOs) are periods of mild environmental conditions supporting the seasonal development of benthic microorganisms. WOs have been defined based on changes in biofilm biomass, but the responses of microbial diversity to WOs in Alpine streams have been overlooked. A two year (2017-2018) metabarcoding of epilithic and epipsammic biofilm prokaryotes was conducted in Alpine streams fed by glaciers (kryal), rock glaciers (rock glacial), or groundwater/precipitation (krenal) in two catchments of the Central-Eastern European Alps (Italy), aiming at testing the hypothesis that: 1) environmental WOs enhance not only the biomass but also the α-diversity of the prokaryotic biofilm in all stream types, 2) diversity and phenology of prokaryotic biofilm are mainly influenced by the physical habitat in glacial streams, and by water chemistry in the other two stream types. The study confirmed kryal and krenal streams as endmembers of epilithic and sediment prokaryotic α- and ß-diversity, with rock glacial streams sharing a large proportion of taxa with the two other stream types. Alpha-diversity appeared to respond to ecological WOs, but, contrary to expectations, seasonality was less pronounced in the turbid kryal than in the clear streams. This was attributed to the small size of the glaciers feeding the studied kryal streams, whose discharge dynamics were those typical of the late phase of deglaciation. Prokaryotic α-diversity of non-glacial streams tended to be higher in early summer than in early autumn. Our findings, while confirming that high altitude streams are heavily threatened by climate change, underscore the still neglected role of rock glacier runoffs as climate refugia for the most stenothermic benthic aquatic microorganism. This advocates the need to define and test strategies for protecting these ecosystems for preserving, restoring, and connecting cold Alpine aquatic biodiversity in the context of the progressing global warming.

The diversity and risk of potential pathogenic bacteria on the surface of glaciers in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau.

Glaciers, which constitute the world's largest global freshwater reservoir, are also natural microbial repositories. The frequent pandemic in recent years underscored the potential biosafety risks associated with the release of microorganisms from the accelerated melting of glaciers due to global warming. However, the characteristics of pathogenic microorganisms in glaciers are not well understood. The glacier surface is the primary area where glacier melting occurs that is often the main subject of research on the dynamics of pathogenic microbial communities in efforts to assess glacier biosafety risks and devise preventive measures. In this study, high-throughput sequencing and quantitative polymerase chain reaction methods were employed in analyses of the composition and quantities of potential pathogenic bacteria on the surfaces of glaciers in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau. The study identified 441 potential pathogenic species ranging from 215 to 4.39 × 1011 copies/g, with notable seasonal and environmental variations being found in the composition and quantity of potential pathogens. The highest level of diversity was observed in April and snow, while the highest quantities were observed in October and cryoconite. Host analysis revealed that >70 % of the species were pathogens affecting animals, with the highest proportion of zoonotic pathogens being observed in April. Analysis of aerosols and glacial meltwater dispersion suggested that these microbes originated from West Asia, primarily affecting the central and southern regions of China. Null model analysis indicated that the assembly of potential pathogenic microbial communities on glacier surfaces was largely governed by deterministic processes. In conclusion, potential pathogenic bacteria on glacier surfaces mainly originated from the snow and exhibited significant temporal and spatial variation patterns. These findings can be used to enhance researchers' ability to predict potential biosafety risks associated with pathogenic bacteria in glaciers and to prevent their negative impact on populations and ecological systems.