Efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors in advanced non-small cell lung cancer patients with rare KRAS mutations: a real-world retrospective study.

Background: Kirsten rat sarcoma homolog (KRAS) mutations are one of the key drivers in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and FDA-approved specific inhibitors of KRAS-G12C mutation are available clinically. However, inhibitors of certain KRAS mutation subtypes remain unavailable, especially rare KRAS mutations including G13C, G13D, and Q61H. In this study, we retrospectively investigated the outcomes of NSCLC patients with rare KRAS-mutation to determine if they may benefit from immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). Methods: Our retrospective study involved 240 advanced NSCLC patients with KRAS mutations, who visited Shanghai Chest Hospital from July 2018 to July 2021. Complete clinical and pathological data were recorded and progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) were adopted as primary endpoints. Results: The median follow-up time was 36.5 months (range, 30.8-42.1 months) and the median OS was 9.7 months (range, 7.6-11.8 months). Of the 240 patients evaluated, 130 (54.2%) received chemotherapy and 110 (45.8%) received ICI-based treatment. Among the patients who received chemotherapy, patients with rare KRAS-mutations presented worse survival outcomes (median PFS, 3.4 vs. 4.1 months, P=0.047; median OS, 5.2 vs. 7.1 months, P=0.02) than conventional KRAS-mutant patients. PFS and OS of rare KRAS-mutation patients were prolonged after immunotherapy (median PFS 7.3 vs. 3.4 months, P<0.001; median OS, 13.3 vs. 5.2 months, P<0.001) and had no significant difference compared with conventional KRAS-mutant patients, in part of them whose programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression data before immunotherapy were available (n=72), patients with a higher rate of PD-L1 positive tumor cells (≥50%) presented elevated PFS and OS. Conclusions: Despite having potential survival disadvantage compared with other NSCLC patients, rare KRAS-mutant patients (other than G12A, C, D, V) could benefit specifically from ICI-based therapy and survival outcomes are correlated with PD-L1 expression.

PROMER technology: A new real-time PCR tool enabling multiplex detection of point mutation with high specificity and sensitivity.

Real-time polymerase chain reaction (real-time PCR) is a powerful tool for the precise quantification of nucleic acids in various applications. In cancer management, the monitoring of circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) from liquid biopsies can provide valuable information for precision care, including treatment selection and monitoring, prognosis, and early detection. However, the rare and heterogeneous nature of ctDNA has made its precise detection and quantification challenging, particularly for ctDNA containing hotspot mutations. We have developed a new real-time PCR tool, PROMER technology, which enables the precise and sensitive detection of ctDNA containing cancer-driven single-point mutations. The PROMER functions as both a PRObe and priMER, providing enhanced detection specificity. We validated PROMER technology using synthetic templates with known KRAS point mutations and demonstrated its sensitivity and linearity of quantification. Using genomic DNA from human cancer cells with mutant and wild-type KRAS, we confirmed that PROMER PCR can detect mutant DNA. Furthermore, we demonstrated the ability of PROMER technology to efficiently detect mutation-carrying ctDNA from the plasma of mice with human cancers. Our results suggest that PROMER technology represents a promising new tool for the precise detection and quantification of DNA containing point mutations in the presence of a large excess of wild-type counterpart.

Brain metastases in clinical trial participants with KRAS-mutated advanced non-small cell lung cancer receiving docetaxel: Pooled data analysis.

OBJECTIVES: Limited data are available on central nervous system (CNS) efficacy with standard-of-care therapies for KRAS-mutated (KRASmut) advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The objective of this study was to investigate the incidence and progression of brain metastases in KRASmut advanced NSCLC treated with docetaxel using pooled data from historical clinical trials. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data from phase 2/3 trials of docetaxel-containing regimens in advanced NSCLC were sourced from the Medidata platform. Analysis was restricted to stage IIIB-IV KRASmut NSCLC with disease progression after ≥ 1 systemic anticancer therapy. Participants with asymptomatic, treated, and stable brain metastases were included. Endpoints included 12-month CNS disease control rate (CNS-DCR) and CNS progression per Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors; progression-free survival (PFS); and overall survival (OS). Data were pooled and analyses stratified by baseline brain metastases status. RESULTS: A total of 595 participants were included in the analysis (62 [10%] with baseline brain metastases and 533 [90 %] without). Among participants with brain metastases, 17 (27.4 %) had CNS progression during docetaxel treatment and 12-month CNS-DCR was 75.8 %; 45 (8.4 %) participants without baseline brain metastases developed brain metastases during treatment. In an analysis restricted to patients with metastatic disease, outcomes with and without baseline brain metastases included: median PFS, 3.3 and 4.9 months (p < 0.005); 12-month PFS, 5 % and 16 %; median OS, 6.9 and 10.4 months (p < 0.005); and 12-month OS, 20 % and 44 %, respectively. CONCLUSION: These findings establish CNS progression rates with docetaxel in previously treated KRASmut advanced NSCLC and facilitate interpretation of data from ongoing randomized clinical trials of novel KRAS-targeted therapeutic strategies vs. docetaxel.

Global research trends in immunotherapy for non-small cell lung cancer patients with KRAS mutations: a bibliometric analysis.

Background: Immunotherapy, frequently combined with conventional chemotherapy, is crucial for treating NSCLC. Kirsten rat sarcoma virus (KRAS) is a poor prognostic factor in patients with NSCLC, particularly lung adenocarcinoma, where binding of conventional inhibitors to mutated KRAS proteins is challenging. Field profiles, research hotspots, and prospects for immunotherapy for patients with NSCLC-carrying KRAS mutations were uncovered in this study. Methods: Microsoft Excel 2019, Bibliometrix, VOSviewer software, and Citespace were utilized to conduct a comprehensive scientometric analysis and understand a specific research field's knowledge base and frontiers aided by bibliometrics. Results: Between 2014 and 2023, 398 eligible documents in the English language were acquired using the WoSCC database, of which 113 and 285 were reviews and articles, respectively. The growth rate per year was 34.25 %. The most cited articles were from the United States, and China published the highest number of articles. Cancers was the journal, with increased publications in recent years. The keywords with the strongest citation bursts were analyzed using Citespace. "Immune checkpoint inhibitors," "co-occurring genomic alterations," and "KRAS" are among the research hotspots in this field. Conclusion: Using bibliometric and visual analyses, we examined immunotherapy for patients with KRAS-mutant NSCLC over the previous decade. The whole analysis showed a steady, quick increase in yearly publications in this area. Our findings will provide a roadmap for future research on the mechanisms of immunotherapy and immune checkpoint inhibitor action in treating KRAS-mutant NSCLC.

Pulmonary mucinous adenocarcinoma: An overview of pathophysiology and advancements in treatment.

Pulmonary mucinous adenocarcinoma (PMA), a distinct subtype of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), is characterized by an abundance of mucin-producing cells. Although this subtype comprises a relatively small fraction of lung adenocarcinomas, PMA stands apart due to its unique clinical, pathological, and molecular features. This review comprehensively discusses the pathophysiology and etiology, clinical features, diagnostic methods, treatment strategies, prognosis, and future directions for PMA, drawing from relevant literature and existing studies. Advances in PMA treatment includes surgical intervention, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, and adjuvant therapy. Particularly, we discussed factors influencing the prognosis of PMAs, such as molecular markers, pathological features, and the impact of the latest treatment advances on prognosis. Moreover, we intended this review to be a comprehensive reference for diagnosing, treating, and assessing the prognosis of PMA, providing valuable guidance for clinical practice.

Drugging the undruggable: Advances in targeting KRAS signaling in solid tumors.

Cancer remains the leading cause of global mortality, prompting a paradigm shift in its treatment and outcomes with the advent of targeted therapies. Among the most prevalent mutations in RAS-driven cancers, Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KRAS) mutations account for approximately 86% of cases worldwide, particularly in lung, pancreatic, and colon cancers, contributing to poor prognosis and reduced overall survival. Despite numerous efforts to understand the biology of KRAS mutants and their pivotal role in cancer development, the lack of well-defined drug-binding pockets has deemed KRAS an "undruggable" therapeutic target, presenting significant challenges for researchers and clinicians alike. Through significant biochemical and technological advances, the last decade has witnessed promising breakthroughs in targeted therapies for KRAS-mutated lung, colon, and pancreatic cancers, marking a critical turning point in the field. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the characteristics of KRAS mutations across various solid tumors, highlighting ongoing cutting-edge research on the immune microenvironment, the development of KRAS-driven mice models, and the recent progress in the exploration of specific KRAS mutant-targeted therapeutic approaches. By comprehensive understanding of the intricacies of KRAS signaling in solid tumors and the latest therapeutic developments, this chapter will shed light on the potential for novel therapeutic strategies to combat KRAS-driven tumors and improve patient outcomes.

Clinical characteristics, outcomes and prognostic factors in KRAS mutant lung cancers: experience from a tertiary care cancer center in India.

Objectives: Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homologue (KRAS) mutations in lung cancers, long considered untargetable, have had a recent rise in interest due to promising data of agents targeting KRAS p.G12C. As Indian data are scarce, we sought to identify baseline clinical characteristics, prognostic factors and outcomes of lung cancer patients with KRAS mutations at our hospital. Methods: Patients with KRAS mutant lung cancers treated at our institute from 2016 to 2022 were analysed. Results: 133 patients with KRAS mutant lung cancers were identified. Median age was 57 (interquartile range 28-78) years, and 58 (43.6%) were smokers. 17 (12.7%) had brain metastases. The commonest variant was p.G12C, seen in 53 (39.8%) patients. Six (4.5%) had programmed death ligand 1 (PDL-1) expression >50% by Ventana SP263 PDL-1 assay, and 13 (9.7%) had epidermal growth factor mutation. Of 92 patients with available treatment details, the majority received intravenous chemotherapy, nine (9.8%) received tyrosine kinase inhibitors and four (4.4%) received immunotherapy (pembrolizumab). Median progression-free survival (PFS) with first-line therapy was 6 (95% confidence interval (CI) 2.8-9.2) months and median overall survival (OS) was 12 (CI 9.2-14.8) months. The incidence of brain metastases was higher in patients with G12C mutations (p = 0.025). Brain metastases (HR: 3.57, p < 0.001), Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status (PS) ≥ 2 (HR: 2.13, p = 0.002) and G12C mutation (HR: 1.84, p = 0.011) were associated with inferior PFS, while brain metastases (HR: 4.6, p < 0.001), PS ≥ 2 (HR: 2.33, p = 0.001) and G12C mutation (HR: 1.93, p = 0.01) were associated with inferior OS. Conclusion: This is the largest dataset of KRAS mutant lung cancers from India. Brain metastases were higher in patients with G12C mutations and associated with poorer PFS and OS. G12C mutation and PS ≥ 2 were also associated with inferior PFS and OS. Experience with targeted therapy for KRAS mutations remains an area of future exploration due to the unavailability of these agents in India.

Abnormalities in the KRAS Gene and Treatment Options for NSCLC Patients with the G12C Mutation in This Gene-A Literature Review and Single-Center Experience.

Mutations in the KRAS gene are among the most common mutations observed in cancer cells, but they have only recently become an achievable goal for targeted therapies. Two KRAS inhibitors, sotorasib and adagrasib, have recently been approved for the treatment of patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer with the KRAS G12C mutation, while studies on their efficacy are still ongoing. In this work, we comprehensively analyzed RAS gene mutations' molecular background, mutation testing, KRAS inhibitors' effectiveness with an emphasis on non-small cell lung cancer, the impact of KRAS mutations on immunotherapy outcomes, and drug resistance problems. We also summarized ongoing trials and analyzed emerging perspectives on targeting KRAS in cancer patients.

Deterministic reprogramming and signaling activation following targeted therapy in non-small cell lung cancer driven by mutations or oncogenic fusions.

INTRODUCTION: Targeted therapy is used to treat lung adenocarcinoma caused by epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations in the tyrosine kinase domain and rare subtypes (<5%) of non-small cell lung cancer. These subtypes include fusion oncoproteins like anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK), ROS1, rearranged during transfection (RET), and other receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). The use of diverse selective oral inhibitors, including those targeting rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KRAS) mutations, has significantly improved clinical responses, extending progression-free and overall survival. AREAS COVERED: Resistance remains a critical issue in lung adenocarcinoma, notably in EGFR mutant, echinoderm microtubule associated protein-like 4 (EML4)-ALK fusion, and KRAS mutant tumors, often associated with epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). EXPERT OPINION: Despite advancements in next generation EGFR inhibitors and EML4-ALK therapies with enhanced brain penetrance and identifying resistance mutations, overcoming resistance has not been abated. Various strategies are being explored to overcome this issue to achieve prolonged cancer remission and delay resistance. Targeting yes-associated protein (YAP) and the mechanisms associated with YAP activation through Hippo-dependent or independent pathways, is desirable. Additionally, the exploration of liquid-liquid phase separation in fusion oncoproteins forming condensates in the cytoplasm for oncogenic signaling is a promising field for the development of new treatments.

Cell-Free Tumor DNA Detection-Based Liquid Biopsy of Plasma and Bile in Patients with Various Pancreatic Neoplasms.

The key challenge of cell-free tumor DNA (cftDNA) analysis in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is overcoming its low detection rate, which is mainly explained by the overall scarcity of this biomarker in plasma. Obstructive jaundice is a frequent event in PDAC, which enables bile collection as a part of routine treatment. The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of KRAS-mutated cftDNA detection-based liquid biopsy of plasma and bile in patients with pancreatic neoplasms using digital droplet PCR. The study included healthy volunteers (n = 38), patients with PDAC (n = 95, of which 20 had obstructive jaundice) and other pancreatic neoplasms (OPN) (n = 18). The sensitivity and specificity compared to the control group were 61% and 100% (AUC-ROC-0.805), and compared to the OPN group, they were 61% and 94% (AUC-ROC-0.794), respectively. Bile exhibited higher cftDNA levels than plasma (248.6 [6.743; 1068] vs. 3.26 [0; 19.225] copies/mL) and a two-fold higher detection rate (p < 0.01). Plasma cftDNA levels were associated with distant metastases, tumor size, and CA 19-9 (p < 0.05). The probability of survival was worse in patients with higher levels of cftDNA in plasma (hazard ratio-2.4; 95% CI: 1.3-4.6; p = 0.005) but not in bile (p > 0.05). Bile is a promising alternative to plasma in patients with obstructive jaundice, at least for the diagnostic purposes of liquid biopsy.

Phosphoramidate Azole Oligonucleotides for Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Detection by PCR.

Detection of the Kirsten rat sarcoma gene (KRAS) mutational status is an important factor for the treatment of various malignancies. The most common KRAS-activating mutations are caused by single-nucleotide mutations, which are usually determined by using PCR, using allele-specific DNA primers. Oligonucleotide primers with uncharged or partially charged internucleotide phosphate modification have proved their ability to increase the sensitivity and specificity of various single nucleotide mutation detection. To enhance the specificity of single nucleotide mutation detection, the novel oligonucleotides with four types of uncharged and partially charged internucleotide phosphates modification, phosphoramide benzoazole (PABA) oligonucleotides (PABAO), was used to prove the concept on the KRAS mutation model. The molecular effects of different types of site-specific PABA modification in a primer or a template on a synthesis of full-length elongation product and PCR efficiency were evaluated. The allele-specific PCR (AS-PCR) on plasmid templates showed a significant increase in analysis specificity without changes in Cq values compared with unmodified primer. PABA modification is a universal mismatch-like disturbance, which can be used for single nucleotide polymorphism discrimination for various applications. The molecular insights of the PABA site-specific modification in a primer and a template affect PCR, structural features of four types of PABAO in connection with AS-PCR results, and improvements of AS-PCR specificity support the further design of novel PCR platforms for various biological targets testing.

Singlet oxygen-based photoelectrochemical detection of single-point mutations in the KRAS oncogene.

Single nucleotide point mutations in the KRAS oncogene occur frequently in human cancers, rendering them intriguing targets for diagnosis, early detection and personalized treatment. Current detection methods are based on polymerase chain reaction, sometimes combined with next-generation sequencing, which can be expensive, complex and have limited availability. Here, we propose a novel singlet oxygen (1O2)-based photoelectrochemical detection methodology for single-point mutations, using KRAS mutations as a case study. This detection method combines the use of a sandwich assay, magnetic beads and robust chemical photosensitizers, that need only air and light to produce 1O2, to ensure high specificity and sensitivity. We demonstrate that hybridization of the sandwich hybrid at high temperatures enables discrimination between mutated and wild-type sequences with a detection rate of up to 93.9%. Additionally, the presence of background DNA sequences derived from human cell-line DNA, not containing the mutation of interest, did not result in a signal, highlighting the specificity of the methodology. A limit of detection as low as 112 pM (1.25 ng/mL) was achieved without employing any amplification techniques. The developed 1O2-based photoelectrochemical methodology exhibits unique features, including rapidity, ease of use, and affordability, highlighting its immense potential in the field of nucleic acid-based diagnostics.

Concomitant Non-V600E BRAF and KRAS Mutations in Colorectal Carcinoma by Next-Generation Sequencing: A Distinct Subtype.

The RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK signaling cascade is the most frequently affected signaling pathway in colorectal cancer. BRAFV600E mutations serve as a drug-treatable hotspot and KRAS mutations as a predictor of susceptibility to anti-epidermal growth factor receptor therapy. Concomitant non-V600E BRAF and KRAS mutations may coexist and are rarely reported in the literature. We report a patient of colorectal carcinoma with inguinal lymph node metastases harboring mutations at the KRAS and BRAF non-V600E mutation codon detected by next-generation sequencing with an emphasis on clinical, pathological, and therapeutic implications of the mutation and review of the literature.

Methods for the purification and detection of single nucleotide KRAS mutations on extrachromosomal circular DNA in human plasma.

BACKGROUNDS: Despite recent advances, many cancers are still detected too late for curative treatment. There is, therefore, a need for the development of new diagnostic methods and biomarkers. One approach may arise from the detection of extrachromosomal circular DNA (eccDNA), which is part of cell-free DNA in human plasma. AIMS: First, we assessed and compared two methods for the purification of eccDNA from plasma. Second, we tested for an easy diagnostic application of eccDNA liquid biopsy-based assays. MATERIALS & METHODS: For the comparison we tested a solid-phase silica purification method and a phenol/chloroform method with salt precipitation. For the diagnostic application of eccDNA we developed and tested a qPCR primer-based SNP detection system, for the detection of two well-established cancer-causing KRAS mutations (G12V and G12R) on circular DNA. This investigation was supported by purifying, sequencing, and analysing clinical plasma samples for eccDNAs containing KRAS mutant alleles in 0.5 mL plasma from 16 pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma patients and 19 healthy controls. RESULTS: In our method comparison we observed, that following exonuclease treatment a lower eccDNA yield was found for the phenol/chloroform method (15.7%-26.7%) compared with the solid-phase purification approach (47.8%-65.9%). For the diagnostic application of eccDNA tests, the sensitivity of the tested qPCR assay only reached ~10-3 in a background of 105 wild type (wt) KRAS circular entities, which was not improved by general amplification or primer-based inhibition of wt KRAS amplification. Furthermore, we did not detect eccDNA containing KRAS in any of the clinical samples. DISCUSSION: A potential explanation for our inability to detect any KRAS mutations in the clinical samples may be related to the general low abundance of eccDNA in plasma. CONCLUSION: Taken together our results provide a benchmark for eccDNA purification methods while raising the question of what is required for the optimal fast and sensitive detection of SNP mutations on eccDNA with greater sensitivity than primer-based qPCR detection.

The Contributions of Trace Elements on Molecular Subtype-Specific Colorectal Cancer.

Purpose: Although growing studies have reported the disturbances of trace elements (TEs) homeostasis was closely associated with the occurrence of colorectal cancer (CRC), the clinical value of TEs in CRC with different molecular subtypes was largely unknown. This study aimed to explore the correlation between KRAS mutations/MSI status and serum TEs levels in patients with CRC. Methods: The serum concentrations of 18 TEs were detected by inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry (ICP-MS). MSI status (two mononucleotides: BAT25, BAT26, three dinucleotides: D2S123, D5S346, and D17S250), KRAS (G516T, G517A, G518C, G520T, G521A, G522C, and G532A) mutations were detected by the multiplex fluorescent PCR and the real-time fluorescent quantitative PCR, respectively. The correlations among KRAS mutations/MSI status, demographic and clinical characteristics, and TEs were analyzed by Spearman correlation analysis. Results: The propensity score matching (PSM) analysis was adopted to minimize differences between groups. Before PSM, 204 CRC patients were recruited in this study, including 123 KRAS-negative patients and 81 KRAS-positive patients according to the test results of KRAS mutations, and 165 MSS patients and 39 MSI patients based on MSI detection. After PSM, the serum concentration of Mn was significantly lower in CRC patients with KRAS mutations than those without KRAS mutations, and a significant negative correlation was observed between Mn and Pb in the KRAS-positive cases. CRC patients carrying MSI had a significantly lower level of Rb compared to MSS patients. Importantly, Rb was significantly positively correlated with Fe, Mn, Se, and Zn in patients with MSI. Collectively, all our data indicated that the occurrence of different molecular events might be accompanied by different alterations in types and levels of serum TEs. Conclusions: CRC patients with different molecular subtypes presented different alterations in types and levels of serum TEs. Mn was significantly negatively correlated with the KRAS mutations, and Rb was noticeably negatively correlated with the MSI status, indicating certain TEs might contribute to the pathogenesis of molecular subtype-specific colorectal cancer.

KRAS G12C mutation and risk of disease recurrence in stage I surgically resected lung adenocarcinoma.

KRAS G12C mutations are found in about 12-13% of LUAD samples and it is unclear whether they are associated with worse survival outcomes in resected, stage I LUAD. We assessed whether KRAS-G12C mutated tumours had worse DFS when compared to KRAS-nonG12C mutated tumours and to KRAS wild-type tumours in a cohort of resected, stage I LUAD (IRE cohort). We then leveraged on publicly available datasets (TCGA-LUAD, MSK-LUAD604) to further test the hypothesis in external cohorts. In the stage I IRE cohort we found a significant association between the KRAS-G12C mutation and worse DFS in multivariable analysis (HR: 2.47). In the TCGA-LUAD stage I cohort we did not find statistically significant associations between the KRAS-G12C mutation and DFS. In the MSK-LUAD604 stage I cohort we found that KRAS-G12C mutated tumours had worse RFS when compared to KRAS-nonG12C mutated tumours in univariable analysis (HR 3.5). In the pooled stage I cohort we found that KRAS-G12C mutated tumours had worse DFS when compared to KRAS-nonG12C mutated tumours (HR 2.6), to KRAS wild-type tumours (HR 1.6) and to any other tumours (HR 1.8); in multivariable analysis, the KRAS-G12C mutation was associated with worse DFS (HR 1.61). Our results suggest that patients with resected, stage I LUAD with a KRAS-G12C mutation may have inferior survival outcomes..

KRAS codon 12 mutations characterize a subset of de novo proliferating "metaplastic" Warthin tumors.

Warthin tumor (WT; synonym: cystadenolymphoma) represents one of the most frequent salivary gland tumors with a frequency equaling or even outnumbering that of pleomorphic adenomas in some series. Histologically, the tumor displays tall columnar oncocytic cells, arranged into two cell-thick layers lining variably cystic glands within an organoid lymphoid stroma. Tumors with exuberant squamous metaplasia in response to FNA-induced or other types of tissue injury/infarction have been referred to as "metaplastic WTs." However, the same terminology was used for tumors with variable mucinous cell and solid or stratified epidermoid proliferations (occasionally mimicking mucoepidermoid carcinoma), although the "metaplasia concept" has never been proven for the latter. We herein investigated 22 WTs showing prominent mucoepidermoid-like or solid oncocytoma-like proliferations without prior FNA or histological evidence of infarction/ trauma using the TruSight Tumor 15 gene panel and KRAS pyrosequencing. As a control, we tested 11 conventional WTs. No statistically significant differences were observed between the two subcohorts regarding patient's age and tumor size. Six of 22 (27%) proliferating/ metaplastic WTs revealed oncogenic KRAS mutations clustering at codon 12 (exon 2), while all conventional tumors lacked these mutations. Our findings are in line with a neoplastic nature of the epidermoid/ mucoepidermoid proliferations in non-injured "metaplastic" Warthin tumors. We propose the descriptive term "de novo proliferating Warthin tumor" for this variant to distinguish it from infarcted/inflamed genuine metaplastic Warthin tumor.

KRAS Mutations in Solid Tumors: Characteristics, Current Therapeutic Strategy, and Potential Treatment Exploration.

Kristen rat sarcoma (KRAS) gene is one of the most common mutated oncogenes in solid tumors. Yet, KRAS inhibitors did not follow suit with the development of targeted therapy, for the structure of KRAS has been considered as being implausible to target for decades. Chemotherapy was the initial recommended therapy for KRAS-mutant cancer patients, which was then replaced by or combined with immunotherapy. KRAS G12C inhibitors became the most recent breakthrough in targeted therapy, with Sotorasib being approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) based on its significant efficacy in multiple clinical studies. However, the subtypes of the KRAS mutations are complex, and the development of inhibitors targeting non-G12C subtypes is still at a relatively early stage. In addition, the monotherapy of KRAS inhibitors has accumulated possible resistance, acquiring the exploration of combination therapies or next-generation KRAS inhibitors. Thus, other non-target, conventional therapies have also been considered as being promising. Here in this review, we went through the characteristics of KRAS mutations in cancer patients, and the prognostic effect that it poses on different therapies and advanced therapeutic strategy, as well as cutting-edge research on the mechanisms of drug resistance, tumor development, and the immune microenvironment.

Neighborhood disadvantage is associated with KRAS-mutated non-small cell lung cancer risk.

PURPOSE: It remains unclear why individuals living in disadvantaged neighborhoods have shorter non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) survival. It is possible that living in these deprived areas is linked with increased risk of developing aggressive NSCLC biology. Here, we explored the association of somatic KRAS mutations, which are associated with shorter survival in NSCLC patients, and 11 definitions of neighborhood disadvantage spanning socioeconomic and structural environmental elements. METHODS: We analyzed data from 429 NSCLC patients treated at a Comprehensive Cancer Center from 2015 to 2018. Data were abstracted from medical records and each patient's home address was used to assign publicly available indices of neighborhood disadvantage. Prevalence Ratios (PRs) for the presence of somatic KRAS mutations were estimated using modified Poisson regression models adjusted for age, sex, smoking status, race/ethnicity, educational attainment, cancer stage, and histology. RESULTS: In the NSCLC cohort, 29% had KRAS mutation-positive tumors. We found that five deprivation indices of socioeconomic disadvantage were associated with KRAS mutation. A one decile increase in several of these socioeconomic disadvantage indices was associated with a 1.06 to 1.14 increased risk of KRAS mutation. Measures of built structural environment were not associated with KRAS mutation status. CONCLUSION: Socioeconomic disadvantage at the neighborhood level is associated with higher risk of KRAS mutation while disadvantage related to built environmental structural measures was inversely associated. Our results indicate not only that neighborhood disadvantage may contribute to aggressive NSCLC biology, but the pathways linking biology to disadvantage are likely operating through socioeconomic-related stress.

Exploring KRAS-mutant pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: a model validation study.

Introduction: Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) has the highest mortality rate among all solid tumors. Tumorigenesis is promoted by the oncogene KRAS, and KRAS mutations are prevalent in patients with PDAC. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the interactions between KRAS mutations and PDAC may expediate the development of therapeutic strategies for reversing the progression of malignant tumors. Our study aims at establishing and validating a prediction model of KRAS mutations in patients with PDAC based on survival analysis and mRNA expression. Methods: A total of 184 and 412 patients with PDAC from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database and the International Cancer Genome Consortium (ICGC), respectively, were included in the study. Results: After tumor mutation profile and copy number variation (CNV) analyses, we established and validated a prediction model of KRAS mutations, based on survival analysis and mRNA expression, that contained seven genes: CSTF2, FAF2, KIF20B, AKR1A1, APOM, KRT6C, and CD70. We confirmed that the model has a good predictive ability for the prognosis of overall survival (OS) in patients with KRAS-mutated PDAC. Then, we analyzed differential biological pathways, especially the ferroptosis pathway, through principal component analysis, pathway enrichment analysis, Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis, and gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA), with which patients were classified into low- or high-risk groups. Pathway enrichment results revealed enrichment in the cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, metabolism of xenobiotics by cytochrome P450, and viral protein interaction with cytokine and cytokine receptor pathways. Most of the enriched pathways are metabolic pathways predominantly enriched by downregulated genes, suggesting numerous downregulated metabolic pathways in the high-risk group. Subsequent tumor immune infiltration analysis indicated that neutrophil infiltration, resting CD4 memory T cells, and resting natural killer (NK) cells correlated with the risk score. After verifying that the seven gene expression levels in different KRAS-mutated pancreatic cancer cell lines were similar to that in the model, we screened potential drugs related to the risk score. Discussion: This study established, analyzed, and validated a model for predicting the prognosis of PDAC based on risk stratification according to KRAS mutations, and identified differential pathways and highly effective drugs.