Contexts shaping misdemeanor system interventions among people with mental illnesses: qualitative findings from a multi-site system mapping exercise.

BACKGROUND: People with mental illnesses are disproportionately entangled in the criminal legal system. Historically, this involvement has resulted from minor offending, often accompanied by misdemeanor charges. In recent years, policymakers have worked to reduce the footprint of the criminal legal system. This paper seeks to better understand how misdemeanor systems intervene in the lives of people with mental illnesses. METHODS: System mapping exercises were conducted with misdemeanor system stakeholders from the jurisdictions of Atlanta, Chicago, Manhattan, and Philadelphia. Narrative detail on decision-making and case processing, both generally and in relation to specific types of behavior, including trespassing, retail theft/shoplifting, and simple assault, were coded and analyzed for thematic patterns. Based on the qualitative analysis, this paper offers a conceptual diagram of contexts shaping misdemeanor system interventions among people with mental illnesses. RESULTS: All four sites have been engaged in efforts to reduce the use of misdemeanor charges both generally and in relation to people with mental illnesses. Decision-makers across all sites experience contexts that shape how, when, and where they intervene, which are: (1) law and policy environments; (2) location of the behavior; (3) expectations of stakeholders; (4) knowledge of mental illnesses; and (5) access to community resources. Law and policy environments expand or constrain opportunities for diversion. The location of offending is relevant to who has a stake in the behavior, and what demands they have. Clinical, experiential, and system-level knowledge of mental illnesses inform a chain of decisions about what to do. The capacity to address mental health needs is contingent on access to social services, including housing. CONCLUSION: People making decisions along the criminal legal continuum are critical to illuminating the dynamic, inter-related contexts that facilitate and frustrate attempts to address defendants' mental health needs while balancing considerations of public safety. Multi-sector, scenario-based or case study exercises could help identify concrete ways of improving each of the contexts that surround whole-of-system decisions.

Competing Concerns in Efforts to Reduce Criminal Legal Contact Among People with Serious Mental Illnesses: Findings from a Multi-City Study on Misdemeanor Arrests.

People with serious mental illnesses are disproportionately involved in the criminal legal system, often for low-level, non-violent misdemeanors. This paper examines how decision-makers at different stages of the criminal legal system articulate unique visions of the "best approach" for addressing this problem of over-representation. Focus groups and in-depth interviews were conducted with 94 stakeholders from Atlanta, Chicago, New York City, and Philadelphia to understand how decision-makers from different agencies use and process specific misdemeanor charges in relation to people with serious mental illnesses. Data were analyzed using a thematic approach. The data reveal a series of tensions regarding how criminal legal system stakeholders process people with serious mental illnesses through the misdemeanor system. Three key themes emerged from analysis. The first characterizes the shared commitment across agencies to reducing system contact among people with mental illnesses. The second explores how agencies differ on how to make good on that commitment because of the distinct values and goals they bring to the table. The final theme explores the limits of current approaches to reducing system contact for people with mental illnesses. Findings are discussed in the context of literature on "loose coupling" and the focal concerns framework and demonstrate that decisions about how and when to intervene with people with mental illnesses in the criminal legal system are influenced by the varying orientations, goals, and values of stakeholder agencies. Understanding these core differences is a critical step toward value alignment in strategies to reduce system involvement among people with mental illnesses.

Incomparable Punishments: How Economic Inequality Contributes to the Disparate Impact of Legal Fines and Fees.

Low-level misdemeanor and traffic violations draw tens of millions of people into local courts to pay fines and fees each year, generating billions of dollars in revenue. We examine how standardized legal fines and fees for low-level charges induce disparate treatment and result in disparate impact. Using a mixed-methods approach that incorporates administrative court records as well as interviews with criminal defendants from Texas, we find that although the majority of defendants readily pay for and conclude their case, African American, Latinx, and economically disadvantaged defendants spend disproportionate amounts of money and time resolving theirs. Analysis of criminal case records illustrates the disparate impact of monetary sanctions through the accrual of debt and time spent resolving a charge. Interviews reveal irreconcilable tensions between American ideals of equality in sentencing and the meaning and value of money and time in an increasingly unequal society.

Characterizing Arrests and Charges Among Individuals With Serious Mental Illnesses in Public-Sector Treatment Settings.

Objective: Individuals with serious mental illnesses are overrepresented in all facets of the legal system. State-level criminal histories of patients with serious mental illnesses were analyzed to determine the proportion who had been arrested and number of lifetime arrests and charges, associations of six variables with number of arrests, and the most common charges from individuals' first two arrests and most recent two arrests. Methods: A total of 240 patients were recruited at three inpatient psychiatric facilities and gave consent to access their criminal history. Information was extracted from Record of Arrest and Prosecution (RAP) sheets for lifetime arrests in Georgia. Results: A total of 171 (71%) had been arrested. Their mean±SD lifetime arrests were 8.6±10.1, and mean lifetime charges were 12.6±14.6. In a Poisson regression, number of arrests was associated with lower educational attainment, Black or African American race, the presence of a substance use disorder, the presence of a mood disorder, and female sex. Common early charges included marijuana possession, driving under the influence of alcohol, and burglary and shoplifting. Common recent charges included probation violations, failure to appear in court, officer obstruction­related charges, and disorderly conduct. Conclusions: Findings point to a need for policy and program development in the legal system (e.g., pertaining to charges such as willful obstruction of an officer), the mental health community (e.g., to ensure that professionals know about clients' legal involvement and can partner in strategies to reduce arrests), and social services sectors (to address charges, such as shoplifting, often related to material disadvantage).

Proliferation of Punishment: The Centrality of Legal Fines and Fees in the Landscape of Contemporary Penology.

Decades of significant crime declines and recent reductions in the number of people confined in prisons and jails in the United States have been accompanied by the emergence of new, and the resurgence of old, forms of punishment. One of these resurgent forms is the assessment of fines, fees, and costs to those who encounter the criminal legal system. Legal financial obligations (LFOs) have become widespread across the United States and are levied for offenses from alleged traffic violations in some states to felony convictions in others. Their emergence has been heralded by some as a less punitive alternative to spending time in prison or jail but recognized by others as uniquely consequential for people without the means to pay. Drawing on data from 254 counties in Texas, this article explores the emergence and enforcement of LFOs in Texas, where LFOs play a particularly prominent role in sanctions for alleged misdemeanor offenses and serve as an important source of revenue. Enforcement of LFOs varies geographically and is related to conservative politics and racial threat. We argue that LFOs are a defining feature of a contemporary punishment regime where racial injustice is fueled by economic inequality.

Examining the community consequences of arrests for low-level criminal activity.

This study was designed to examine the effects of arrests for low-level criminal activity on key features of police-community relations and the capacity of the neighborhood to regulate behavior of residents. Multilevel mixed-effects modeling was used with residents (N = 826) living in police beats (N = 51) in Chicago to test the hypotheses that higher arrest rates were associated with less police legitimacy, less willingness to work with the police and less neighborhood informal social control. The results indicated that more aggressive enforcement was associated with less capacity for informal social control. The findings also suggested that higher arrest rates were directly related to more legitimacy and indirectly related to less legitimacy through residents' negative experiences with police. For residents affected by crime and disorder but not burdened by aggressive enforcement, the use of arrests to reduce incivilities may be viewed positively and related to stronger beliefs about legitimacy. In contrast, trust and confidence in police may be reduced for those residents who experience the costs associated with low-level arrests. Regardless of the short-term effects, if aggressive low-level policing undermines the effectiveness of social control systems in the neighborhood, communities will be less safe in the long term.

Enforcement trends in the city of St. Louis from 2007 to 2017: Exploring variability in arrests and criminal summonses over time and across communities.

The goal of this study is twofold: (a) to describe trends in enforcement activity in the city of St. Louis from 2007 through 2017 and (b) to document community variation in these trends. Five types of enforcement actions are examined: felony, misdemeanor, municipal, and bench warrant arrests and criminal summonses-in-lieu of arrest. Results indicate that enforcement activity decreased over the study period, particularly for nonfelony arrests among Blacks. City-wide trends obscure some variability in neighborhood enforcement. Neighborhood trends in enforcement varied by type of action, but in all cases, trends were conditioned by racial composition. For example, misdemeanor and bench warrant arrests exhibited steeper declines in neighborhoods with a higher percentage of Black residents, resulting in a narrowing of the race gap. In contrast, differences in criminal summonses across neighborhoods of varying racial compositions increased. The effects persisted net of measures of economic disadvantage, community location, residential mobility, household composition, calls for service, and population size. The findings highlight the importance of disaggregating enforcement trends by race and place and documenting changes in less serious, but more prevalent, types of law enforcement activity.

Características psicossociais de personalidade de adoslescentes infratores em cumprimento de medida socioeducativa / Psychosocial caracteristics and personality of juvenit delinquents in compliance measure socioeducativa

Para atingir os objetivos propostos, ou seja, levantar e descrever indicadores socioculturais de uma amostra de adolescentes em cumprimento de medida socioeducativa, e descrever características psicológicas e de personalidade dos adolescentes infratores, num estudo que pesquisou adolescentes em cumprimento de medida socioeducativa. O trabalho foi realizado em duas as etapas: na primeira, os 47 adolescentes participaram de uma entrevista semidirigida; na segunda, dez desses adolescentes foram selecionados e submetidos a um instrumento projetivo para investigação de aspectos da personalidade: o “desenho da Figura Humana” de Machower, adaptado por Van Kolck (1956; 1984). A discussão teórica dos resultados baseou-se numa abordagem psicanalítica pós-freudiana para a compreensão da adolescência tanto como fase do desenvolvimento humano como dos comportamentos antissociais. Os resultados do estudo corroboraram a teoria advinda da literatura psicológica que aborda padrões comuns no período da adolescência, fase em que ocorre um complexo de fatores individuais da maturidade biológica associados ao meio social/cultural e que, por sua vez, estabelecem relações com as instâncias psicológicas ou psíquicas do sujeito junto com as características específicas de cada indivíduo. Na busca da compreensão desses padrões comuns da amostra dos adolescentes infratores utilizados no presente estudo, foram levantados dados do perfil psicossocial, cultural e demográfico; dos aspectos psicossociais e aspectos psicodinâmicos e de características de personalidade. A título de conclusão, o estudo destacou a problemática do adolescente em conflito com a lei, associada às questões sociais, de saúde mental, além do desenvolvimento psíquico, sinalizando a necessidade de ações psicoprofiláticas voltadas para população infantil, jovem, agrupamentos familiares e para a comunidade que representa seu entorno. (AU)

To achieve the proposed objectives, ie up and describe sociocultural indicators of a sample of adolescents in compliance with socio-educational measures, and describe psychological characteristics and personality of juvenile offenders, the study surveyed 47 adolescents in compliance with socio-educational measures. There were two stages of work: first, the 47 teens participated in a semistructured interview; in the second, ten of these adolescents were selected and submitted to a projective tool to research aspects of personality: the "Drawing the Human Figure" of Machower, adapted by Van Kolck (1956; 1984). The theoretical discussion of the results was based on a post-Freudian psychoanalytic approach to understanding both adolescence as a phase of human development as the antisocial behavior. The study results confirmed the arising theory of psychological literature that addresses common patterns during adolescence, a phase in which there is a complex of individual factors of biological maturity associated with social / cultural environment and, in turn, establish relations with the psychological or mental bodies of the subject along with the specific characteristics of each individual. In search of understanding of these common sample of adolescent offenders used in this study patterns, psychosocial, cultural and demographic data were collected; psychosocial aspects and psychodynamic aspects and personality characteristics. In conclusion, the study highlighted the adolescent problematic in conflict with the law, associated with social, mental health, and the psychic development, signaling the need for focused Psychoprophylactic actions for child population, young family groups and the community representing its surroundings. (AU)

Maioridade penal: a urgência de uma discussão / Criminal majority: the urgency of a discussion / Mayoridade penal: la urgencia de una discusión / Majorité pénale: urgence de débat

Pesquisas recentes de opinião pública apontam que há um clamor social pela redução da maioridade penal, o que não é diferente no Senado onde tramitam diversas Propostas de Emenda a Constituição (PECs) sugerindo a adoção desta medida como solução para a criminalidade e violência. Diante da urgência de discussão sobre esta temática, o artigo parte do contexto histórico da categoria "menor" e da concepção de adolescente autor de ato infracional constituída pelo Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente - ECA, com o objetivo de discutir o advento atual da proposta de redução da maioridade penal. Ressalta-se a elaboração das PECs, a atuação da mídia e a opinião pública frente à desconsideração da inimputabilidade de adolescentes. Além disso, é discutido o posicionamento contrário de alguns setores que atuam no âmbito dos direitos humanos, tais como: o Fundo das Nações Unidas para a Infância (UNICEF), o Conselho Nacional dos Direitos da Criança e do Adolescente (CONANDA) e a Secretaria Nacional de Direitos Humanos (SNDH). A base para refutar a proposta de redução da idade penal, apresentada por esses setores, encontra-se na precária ou até mesmo inexistente garantia dos direitos previstos no ECA. Desse modo, torna-se fundamental a defesa pela efetivação da proteção integral à criança e ao adolescente, como forma de prevenir os atos infracionais. Por fim, compreende-se que propostas como a redução da idade penal além de desresponsabilizar o Estado em sua função de assegurar os direitos fundamentais, autoriza a punição e exclusão cada vez mais dos adolescente.

Recent public opinion polls show that there is a social outcry by the reducing the legal age, which is not different in the Senate where several Proposed Amendment to the Constitution (PECs) proceed suggesting the adoption of this measure as a solution to crime and violence. Given the urgency of discussion on this subject, the article begin from the historical context of the "minor" category and teenage author conception of an offense constituted by the Child and Adolescent Statute - ECA, in order to discuss the current advent of the reduction of legal age proposal. It emphasizes the development of PECs, media activities and public opinion front to disregard of the unaccountability of teenagers. Moreover, it is argued the contrary position of certain sectors involved in the area of human rights, such as the United Nations Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the National Council for the Rights of Children and Adolescents (CONANDA) and the Human Rights National Secretary (SNDH). The basis for refuting the reduction of the legal age proposal, presented by these sectors, is found on the poor or even non-existent guarantee of the rights foreseen in the ECA. Thus, it is essential the defense for the effecting of the full protection of children and adolescents, in order to prevent illegal acts. Finally, it is understood that proposals such as reducing the penal age plus hold harmless the State in its role of ensuring fundamental rights, authorizes the punishment and exclusion increasingly adolescents.

Recientes investigaciones de opinión pública apuntan que hay un clamor social por la reducción de la mayoridad penal, lo que no es diferente en el Senado donde se tramita diversas Propuestas de Enmienda a la Constitución (PECs), sugiriendo la adopción de esta medida como solución para la criminalidad y la violencia. Ante la urgencia de discusión acerca de este tema, el artículo toma por base el contexto histórico de la categoría "menor" y del concepto de adolescente autor de delito constituida por el Estatuto del Niño y del Adolescente ­ ENA, con el objetivo de discutir la llegada de la propuesta de reducción de la mayoridad penal. Se sobresale a la elaboración de las PECs la actuación de los medios de comunicación y la opinión pública ante a la desconsideración de la inimputabilidad de los adolescentes. Además, es discutido el posicionamiento contrario de algunos sectores que actúan en el ámbito de los derechos humanos, tales como: Naciones Unidas para la Infancia (UNICEF), el Consejo Nacional de los Derechos Humanos (CONANDA) y la Secretaria Nacional de Derechos Humanos (SNDH). La base para contestar la propuesta de mayoridad penal, presentada por estos sectores, está en la precaria o inexistente garantía de los derechos establecidos en el ECA. Así, es fundamental la defensa por la implementación de la protección integral al niño y al adolescente, como forma de prevención de delitos. Por fin, se comprende que propuestas como la reducción de la edad penal, además de quitar la responsabilidad al Estado en su función de garantizar los derechos fundamentales, autoriza casa vez más la punición y exclusión de los adolescentes.

Des recherches récentes de l'opinion publique montrent un cri de la société pour la réduction de la majorité pénale, ce qui n'est pas diférent au Sénat où circulent des diverses Propositions d'Amendement [emenda] à la Contitution (PECs) qui suggèrent accépter cette décision comme résolution de la criminalité et de la violence. Devant l'urgence de débatre ce thème-là, cet article part du contexte historique de la catégorie « mineur ¼ et de la conception de l'adolescent auteur de l'acte d'infraction conceptualisée par l'Estatut de l'Enfant [criança] et l'Adolescent ­ ECA, ayant comme but le débattre de la proposition de réduction de la majorité pénale. On met en relief l'élaboration des PECs, le rôle des médias, et l'opinion publique en face au discrédit de la non punition des adolescents. On discute encore le positionnement contraire de quelques organizations dans le domaine des Droits Humains, comme : le Fonds Des Nations Unies Pour L'enfance (UNICEF), le Conseil National des Droits des Enfants et des Adolescents (CONANDA) et le Bureau [Secretaria] National des Droits Humains (SNDH). La base des arguments présentés par ces Organisations pour réfuter la proposition de réduction de la majorité pénale est la précarité, ou plutôt l'inexistence, de la garantie des droits prévus par l'ECA dans ces propositions-là. De cette façon, il est de grande importance qu'il y ait la défense de l'éfétivation de la protection totale de l'enfant et de l'adolescent comme un moyen de prévenir les actes d'infractions. Enfin, on conclut que des propositions de réduction de la majorité pénale retire la résponsabilité de l'État de sa fonction d'assurer les droits fonfamenteaux des adolescents autant qu'elles autorizent de plus en plus leurs punition et exclusion.