Guiding clean energy transitions in rural households: Insights from China's pilot low-carbon policies.

The impact of Low Carbon Pilot Policies (LCPPs) on carbon reduction and energy efficiency has been extensively studied. However, the potential of these policies to promote clean energy transition (CET) in rural households remains underexplored. This article constructed a staggered-DID model using data from the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) to investigate the impact and mechanisms of LCPPs on rural households' CET. The findings indicate that LCPPs significantly enhance the CET among rural households. Moreover, the effects of LCPPs vary across cities, while differences within communities and households are less pronounced. Mechanism analysis reveals that LCPPs facilitate rural households' CET through income effects, infrastructure improvements, and enhanced low-carbon awareness. Notably, the income and low-carbon awareness effects are heterogeneous. Additionally, LCPPs have increased rural households' expenditures on home-cooked meals. We estimate the average fixed cost of the CET for rural households to be approximately $404.495. These insights provide valuable empirical evidence that can guide other countries and regions in promoting CET in rural areas.

"A quantitative analysis on the adoption of soil, water, and forest conservation technologies in the upper Gelana watershed, Northeast Ethiopian highlands".

Globally, the degradation of soil, water, and forests has had a significant impact on both livelihoods and the environment. This issue is particularly severe in developing countries, including Ethiopia. Despite extensive efforts to implement conservation measures for soil, water, and forests in the highlands of Ethiopia, there has been a lack of thorough evaluation and documentation regarding the adoption of these practices by rural households. It is crucial to have scientific and up-to-date information at various spatial scales in order to effectively monitor existing practices, scale up successful initiatives, and promote sustainable regional development. Therefore, this paper focuses on analyzing the adoption of soil, water, and forest conservation activities by households in the upper Gelana watershed, South Wollo zone, Amhara Regional State of Ethiopia. The field data collection for this study took place from January to March 2022, from 150 rural household heads. Data analysis was carried out using SPSS software version 23. Descriptive statistics, Pearson bivariate correlation, and multinomial logistic regression were used. The survey findings revealed that 69 % of the respondents had implemented various soil, water, and forest conservation measures at different stages. The Pearson correlation results indicated a positive relationship between the adoption of soil, water and forest conservation practices. The multinomial logistic regression analysis has revealed that age, gender, access to credit, and access to extension services, significantly influenced the households' decision behaviour to adopt soil conservation practices. Age, access to extension service, and access to water resource were significant predictors of adoption of water conservation practices; whereas age, educational status, and access to extension service were significant predictors of adoption of forest conservation practices. This study underscores the significance of institutional factors in driving the adoption of technology in the research area. It further recommends policies that prioritize the dissemination of information on effective strategies, improvement of access to extension services, water resources, and credit facilities to promote sustainable watershed management. This study is exceptional in its innovative approach, which explores the convergence of these vital conservation domains within the distinct setting of the upper Gelana watershed. Studying the adoption of these technologies is crucial for informing policy-making and designing effective interventions that promote sustainable watershed practices. In this case, the Ministry of Agriculture, and development agents should scale up the adoption of these practices and take remedial actions for those not yet adopted.

Assessing greywater characteristics in the sahel region and perception of the local population on its reuse in agriculture.

Research on greywater reuse in water stressed areas is in full swing. However, the perception of greywater reuse is one of the least researched areas in West Africa, particularly in Sahelian countries. This study aimed to fills a significant gap in the existing literature, which has largely ignored the specific socio-demographic contexts of developing countries in the Sahelian regions. The study involved in-depth interviews with 240 rural households and the collection of 40 greywater samples in four locations for laboratory analysis. The survey focused on greywater management and household perceptions of greywater reuse in agriculture. The analyses focused on determining the physico-chemical and microbiological parameters of greywater collected from households. The results showed that over 80 % of households discharged greywater into the natural environment without prior treatment. The majority of respondents were aware that poor greywater management poses a health risk. The results also showed an association between locality, gender, education level and perceptions of poor grey water management. Respondents were willing to accept the reuse of greywater in agriculture, to consume irrigated vegetables and to install a greywater treatment system. The quality analysis showed that the greywater was not in compliance with the legal discharge limits. This study highlights that in order to promote sustainable greywater management practices within households, it is important to design effective greywater treatment systems that meet the needs of the target population. Awareness campaigns, education and training programmes on wastewater management could also be established.

The effect of targeted poverty alleviation on consumption of poor rural households in China.

Using a survey data of 358 rural households from Jiangxi province of China. This article uses the regression adjusted inverse probability weighted estimation method (IPWRA) to study the impact of precision poverty alleviation on the consumption of rural impoverished households. The empirical results of ATE estimation indicate that precision poverty alleviation has a significant impact on the total consumption and food, clothing, education and living consumption of impoverished households, but has no significant impact on transportation, communication and miscellaneous consumption. Moreover, the poverty alleviation has the largest effect on consumption of education, followed by food.

Does non-farm employment increase rural households' consumption in western Ethiopia? Empirical evidence from the horo guduru wollega zone.

In rural areas where farming is the primary source of income for farmers, engaging in non-farm activities can provide an additional source of income and improve household consumption. However, several social and economic factors present challenges to the involvement of rural households in non-farm activities. This study aimed to examine the impact of non-farm participation on household consumption in rural areas.A multistage sampling method was used to select the sample households from the study area. Heckman's two-step procedure was utilized to analyze survey data obtained from 383 rural household heads. The results indicated that participating in non-farm employment had a positive and significant effect on household consumption levels. The result indicated that households that engage in non-farm activities had higher levels of consumption compared to those who do not participate in such activities. The study also identified several factors that influence household consumption in rural areas. These factors include education, access to credit, distance to market, TLU (Tropical Livestock Unit), membership in "iqub" (a social financial system), health status, non-farm training, and gender. It was found that gender disparities exist, with female-headed households experiencing lower consumption levels than male-headed households. Based on the findings, the research recommended addressing gender disparities and improving rural infrastructure, particularly in relation to enhancing health services, electricity supply, road transport, and education. Efforts should also be made to overcome the challenges related to access to training and credit. The study emphasized the significance of recognizing the impact of supporting existing social financial systems, such as iqub, in improving household consumption in rural areas.

Animal Handling Practice Among Rural Households in Northwest Ethiopia Increases the Risk of Childhood Diarrhea and Exposure to Pathogens From Animal Sources.

Background: In Ethiopia, domestic animals and their feces are not properly contained. However, the risk of exposure to zoonotic pathogens is not well documented. This study was conducted to assess animal handling practices and the risk of childhood diarrhea among rural households in northwest Ethiopia. Methods: This study was done among 403 randomly selected households. Information on animal handling was collected using a questionnaire and spot-check observation. The occurrence of childhood diarrhea in 14 days prior to the survey was assessed based on the reports of female head of households. Multivariable binary logistic regression analysis was performed to identify the association between animal handling practices and childhood diarrhea. Results: All the female head of households had contact with animal feces when preparing fuel disks and plastering the house components with animal dung. Domestic animals shared a corral within the living space of the humans in 20% of the households. Animals entered the human living quarters and accessed foods in 32% of the households. Moreover, 24% of the children aged 24 to 59 months had diarrhea in a 2-week period prior to the survey. Childhood diarrhea was associated with domestic animals sharing the same house as humans (AOR: 3.3, 95% CI: 1.3, 8.6), presence of animal excreta in child playing areas (AOR: 2.4, 95% CI: 1.2, 4.6), contact of domestic animals with stored foods (AOR: 3.5, 95% CI: 2.0, 5.9), trapped dirt under fingernails of female heads (AOR: 3.7, 95% CI: 1.9, 7.5), open defecation (AOR: 3.24, 95% CI: 1.8, 5.9), and unprotected sources (AOR: 4.2, 95% CI: 1.1, 15.3). Conclusion: Domestic animals and their excreta are not hygienically contained in the area. Animal handling practices including their excreta and the hygiene behavior of female head of households (eg, handwashing and food handling practices) should be improved to prevent childhood diarrhea.

Extreme rainfall, farmer vulnerability, and labor mobility-Evidence from rural China.

The recurrent occurrence of extreme weather events poses a significant threat to agricultural production, food security, and sustainable economic development. Understanding farmers' adaptive responses to cope with these challenges is pivotal for informing and implementing effective climate resilience policies. This study utilizes the Spatial Precipitation Index (SPI) to assess rainfall patterns and applies fixed effects methods to analyze extreme rainfall shocks' impact on rural households, using panel data from China's 2006-2015 National Rural Fixed Point Survey. Below are the results. Firstly, both drought and rainstorm shocks negatively affect agricultural yield and income, highlighting farmers' vulnerability to extreme rainfall events. Secondly, farmers respond to these shocks by reallocating labor from agriculture to non-agricultural sectors or migrating to urban areas, with these labor mobility patterns typically being temporary. Thirdly, there's notable heterogeneity linked to household affluence. Less affluent rural households experienced more pronounced declines in yield and income, compelling higher migration rates. Collectively, our findings shed light on how Chinese rural households strategically adjust their labor decisions to respond to extreme rainfall shocks through inter-sectoral and inter-regional labor mobility.

Patterns and trends in household food security in rural Mpumalanga Province, South Africa.

This study examines patterns and trends in household food security in Bushbuckridge, Mpumalanga Province, South Africa, from 2010 to 2019. We use data from a household panel nested in the Agincourt Health and Socio- Demographic Surveillance System. Findings indicate that there have been improvements in household food security in this rural setting over the last decade. By polychoric principal component analysis, an aggregate food security index was constructed and we observed a small, yet important, proportion of households (7.8 %) that remained chronically food insecure. An ordered probit model was used to estimate the determinants of food security. Findings reveal that the observed differences in household food security status are as a result of differences in socioeconomic status. We therefore recommend that focus must be placed on identifying economic opportunities and empowering the chronically food insecure households if universal household food security is to be attained in rural South Africa and beyond.

Impact of urbanization on the welfare of farm households: Evidence from Adama Rural District in Oromia regional state, Ethiopia.

Urbanization is a widespread phenomenon with varying causes, patterns, and effects across countries. However, existing studies have overlooked the specific impact of urbanization on households near urban areas by failing to compare them with households in more distant regions. This study examines the impact of urbanization on rural household welfare in the Adama Rural District of the Oromia Region, Ethiopia. A multi-stage sampling technique was employed, selecting a sample of 397 households from two distinct categories. Of these households, 148 were located near the urban center, while 249 were far away. The study utilized descriptive and inferential data analysis methods and employed the propensity score matching technique to investigate the impact on farm households. Data was collected through questionnaires to gather cross-sectional information, supplemented by qualitative insights from Key Informant Interviews. The findings revealed that households near urban areas had a significantly lower mean annual consumer expenditure of 5207 ETB compared to 8092 ETB spent by families in distant areas. The results from propensity score matching further indicated that households near urban centers experienced lower annual consumption expenditures than those located further away. These results highlight the influence of urbanization on the welfare of rural farming households near urban areas. To address the negative effects of urbanization on these households, city administrations, and regional governments need to prioritize the development and implementation of alternative livelihood support strategies. Additionally, the study emphasizes the necessity of implementing policies that mitigate farmland loss while considering the socioeconomic factors impacting farmers in the region.

Direct and indirect consumption activities drive distinct urban-rural inequalities in air pollution-related mortality in China.

Household consumption in China is associated with substantial PM2.5 pollution, through activities directly (i.e., fuel use) and/or indirectly (i.e., consumption of goods and services) causing pollutant emissions. Urban and rural households exhibit different consumption preferences and living areas, thus their contributions to and suffering from air pollution could differ. Assessing this contrast is crucial for comprehending the environmental impacts of the nation's ongoing urbanization process. Here we quantify Chinese urban and rural households' contributions to ambient PM2.5 pollution and the health risks they suffer from, by integrating economic, atmospheric, and health models and/or datasets. The national premature deaths related to long-term exposure to PM2.5 pollution contributed by total household consumption are estimated to be 1.1 million cases in 2015, among which 56% are urban households and 44% are rural households. For pollution contributed indirectly, urban households, especially in developed provinces, tend to bear lower mortality risks compared with the portions of deaths or pollution they contribute. The opposite results are true for direct pollution. With China's rapid urbanization process, without adequate reduction in emission intensity, the increased indirect pollution-associated premature deaths could largely offset that avoided by reduced direct pollution, and the indirect pollution-associated urban-rural inequalities might become severer. Developing pollution mitigation strategies from both production and consumption sides could help with reducing pollution-related mortality and associated urban-rural inequality.

Determinants of willingness to pay for community-based health insurance scheme among households in rural community of southern Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Community-based health insurance programs are being acknowledged as effective strategies to attain universal health coverage and mitigate the financial catastrophic shock of the community. Even though Ethiopia has been focusing on the implementation and expansion of a community-based health insurance (CBHI) program since 2011, only a small number of people are enrolled, which might be attributed to a lack of willingness towards the program. The purpose of this study is to determine the willingness to pay for community-based health insurance and associated factors among households in the rural community of Gombora District, Hadiya Zone, southern Ethiopia. METHODS: Using the multistage systematic random sampling technique, a sample of 421 households was chosen for a community-based cross-sectional study. The desired information was gathered using a pre-tested, structured, interviewer-administered questionnaire. The data was entered using Epi-Data V3.1 and exported to SPSS version 24.0 for statistical analysis. Bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed to determine the variables associated with the willingness to pay for community-based health insurance. RESULTS: The study showed that 67.1% of respondents expressed a willingness to pay for community-based health insurance. The mean amount of money they are willing to pay for the scheme is 178.41 (± 57.21) Ethiopian Birr (ETB), or 6.43 (± 2.06) USD per household per annum in 2020. Based on multiple logistic regression analysis, belonging to Rich household compared to poor (AOR: 2.78, 95% CI: 1.54, 5.03), having a household head who can read and write (AOR: 2.90, 95% CI: 1.39, 6.05), family size greater than five (AOR: 1.76, 95% CI: 1.06, 2.92), indigenous community insurance (iddir) participation (AOR: 2.83, 95% CI: 1.61, 4.96), and the presence of chronic illness (AOR: 1.94, 95% CI: 1.21, 3.12), were significantly associated with the willingness to pay for a CBHI scheme. CONCLUSION: Households' willingness to pay for a CBHI scheme was found to be significantly influenced by poor household wealth status, household heads who cannot read and write, households with less than or equal to five family members, households who participate in greater or equal to two indigenous community insurance participations, and the absence of chronic illness within the household. Therefore, factors affecting households' willingness to pay should be considered and massive community mobilization needs to be done to strengthen and increase household membership during the implementation of the CBHI scheme, especially in rural areas.

Household-level food insecurity and its correlates in rural Bihar: A cross-sectional study.

Introduction: Bihar has experienced high nutritional public health problem among children and women over the years. In this background, this study was planned to find the level of food insecurity and identify contributing factors in rural Bihar. Material and Methods: We conducted community-based cross-sectional study among 255 families residing in villages catered by RHTC, Naubatpur. A pretested semi-structured interview schedule and HFIAS were used. Result: A total of 27.8% of the 255 households were food insecure, of which 73.3% were severely food insecure. Kutcha houses, dispossession of agricultural land, and lower SES were found to be predictors. Conclusion: Around one in three families experienced food insecurity, and it was more among families residing in kutcha houses, without possession of agricultural land and belonging to lower socioeconomic status.

Effects of rabbit production on income and livelihood of rural households in Nigeria.

Aims: More effort and actions are needed to combat the rising levels of food insecurity and poverty in developing countries, particularly among rural households. Rural households can significantly contribute to reducing poverty, enhancing their nutritional condition, and enhancing their standard of living by engaging in rabbit production but there are few empirical studies on the contribution of rabbit production to households' livelihood and income. Therefore, this study examines how producing rabbits affects rural farmers' income and household livelihood in Nigeria. Methods and results: Multiple regression and descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data gathered from 240 rabbit farms. The findings demonstrated that rabbit farming is a male-dominated enterprise (male 77.5%). According to the regression analysis, the income of rural households was positively and significantly impacted by the income from rabbits. Farmers' ages, interactions with extension agents, credit they accessed, and assets were further determinants of their income. Additionally, rabbit production improved the level of living of rural households. Access to forage, the prevalence of diseases, scarcity of veterinary, and the high cost of medication, were the severe constraints faced in rabbit production. Conclusions: It may be concluded that rabbit production had a significant contribution to the economic situation, way of life, and well-being of rural households. Although there were some constraints with the operation. Females are to be encouraged in rabbit production as livelihood diversification. Also, it is crucial that banks, governments, and non-governmental organizations offer farmers easily accessible and reasonable loan facilities as this will boost their revenue. Training on forage production and storage is also recommended. Significance and the impact of the study: Participation will be improved by having an understanding of how rabbit farming affects the income and way of life of rural dwellers. As a result, the findings of this study would enable policymakers to intervene in enhancing its production thereby encouraging more farmers to be involved in the production and also, enhancing the well-being of rural households.

Did COVID-19 affect rural households' subjective well-being? A social survey from rural China.

Improving rural households' subjective well-being is an important element of economic and social revitalization in the post-epidemic period. Based on the survey data obtained from rural households in Hubei Province, the center of the outbreak in China, and its surrounding areas, this paper explores the impact mechanisms of the COVID-19 epidemic on subjective well-being from both economic and sociological perspectives with the help of structural equation modeling. The results show that COVID-19 significantly influenced rural households' subjective well-being in China. Furthermore, COVID-19 indirectly affected their subjective well-being by influencing optimism. The negative impact is moderated by government intervention and income resilience. Therefore, strengthening the emergency management capacity of local governments and encouraging the diversification of rural households' income sources are important strategies to effectively resolve epidemic shocks and improve the level of well-being.

Social Determinants of Rural Household Food Insecurity under the Taliban Regime.

Despite the severity of food insecurity in Afghanistan, little is known about the factors contributing to household food insecurity (HFI) under the Taliban regime. Therefore, this paper investigated the social determinants of severe HFI in rural areas of Afghanistan. We used the fifth-round survey of 6019 rural households from 25 provinces, collected between July and August 2022 by the Food and Agriculture Organization. We used binary logistic regression to examine the association between household characteristics and HFI. The majority of household heads were male (97.8%) with no education (62.8%). The findings showed that female-headed households had significantly higher odds of severe HFI. Household heads with any level of formal education had significantly reduced odds of severe HFI, while the odds of severe HFI was not different among those with religious/informal household-head education compared to those with no education. Likewise, engagement in any type of agricultural activity decreased the odds of severe HFI. Additionally, household income per member was negatively, while household size was positively associated with severe HFI. In summary, interventions to alleviate HFI among rural households should prioritize income-generating opportunities and skills targeting households with female heads, low levels of household-head education, larger size, no agricultural activities, and low income.

Measurement of Common Prosperity of Chinese Rural Households Using Graded Response Models: Evidence from Zhejiang Province.

Common prosperity is an important feature of Chinese-style modernization. The difficulty and focus of promoting the construction of common prosperity in China lies in rural areas and rural households. How to evaluate the common prosperity of rural households is becoming an important research topic. Based on the perspective of meeting the people's needs for a better life, this study designed 14 items or indicators from the dimensions of affluence, commonality, and sustainability. The common prosperity of rural households is regarded as a potential structure. Based on the survey data of 615 rural households in Zhejiang Province, graded response models were used to estimate the discrimination and difficulty coefficient, and an indicator selection and characteristics analysis were carried out. The research results show that there are 13 items suitable for measuring the common prosperity of rural households, and these indicators have strong distinguishing ability. However, different dimension indicators have different functions. In particular, the affluence dimension, the sharing dimension, and the sustainability dimension are suitable for distinguishing families with a relatively high level of common prosperity, a medium level of common prosperity, and a low level of common prosperity, respectively. Based on this, we propose policy recommendations such as building diversified governance strategies, formulating differentiated governance policies, and supporting the corresponding basic policy reform.

Determinants of food insecurity in rural households: A case of lemo district, southern Ethiopia.

Despite the increasing global concern of improving food security, the determinants of food insecurity at household level in the rural areas have been poorly known. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze determinants of food insecurity at household level. A total of 383 households were selected using multistage sampling techniques. The logistic regression model was used to analyze the data. The result revealed that odds of illiterate households were 2.376 times more likely than educated households to experience food insecurity in the rural areas (ref. (Coef. = 0.865, OR = 2.376, P = 0.006)). Households with landholdings of more than half hectare were less likely to experience food insecurity. (ref. (Coef. = 1.982, OR = 7.260, P = 0.000)). Odds of households who engaged in off-farm activities were 0.204 times less likely to experience food insecurity. (ref. (Coef. = -1.588, OR = 0.204, P = 0.000)). Households who adopt farm technologies were less likely to experience food insecurity than those who do not adopt farm technology (ref. (Coef. = -1.086, OR = 0.337, P = 0.001)). Odds of higher-aged household heads were 6.141 times more likely to experience food insecurity than younger-aged household heads (ref. (Coef. = 1.815, OR = 6.141, P = 0.000)). Larger household sizes were less likely to experience food insecurity (ref. (Coef. = -2.423, OR = 0.089, P = 0.000)). In conclusion, understanding determinants of food insecurity at household level is essential to achieve food security in rural areas. Results suggest implementation of the effective developmental programs are needed to reduce food insecurity in rural areas.

Demographic, social and economic factors affecting the adoption of green toilets among rural households in India.

This study investigates the demographic, social and economic factors as key determinants of green toilet adoption among rural households in India. The Rural Impact Survey data of the World Bank have been used for this study, covering 2731 rural households from Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh. The chi-square test and regression analysis with marginal estimate have been used to analyze the data. Result of the analysis indicates that about 36.2 percent surveyed rural households have reported access to green toilets having proper effluent discharge systems as per the environmental norms. Further, there is a significant association between the adoption of green toilets and demographic, social and economic characteristics of rural households. Finally, the regression analysis indicates that a number of demographic, social and economic factors i.e., age, education, income, social category, access to information, access to drinking water, and asset ownership have a significant marginal effect on the adoption of green toilets in rural India. Considering the importance of ensuring total sanitation and commitment under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations for eradicating open defecation for all by 2030 in the country, the results of the study provide useful policy directions for enhancing the adoption of green toilets among the rural households in India.

What attributes influence rural household's willingness to get vaccinated for COVID-19? Perspectives from six Chinese townships.

Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, vaccinations have been identified as the most effective mitigation strategy against the deadly virus. This has led developed nations to accelerate research and shorten the licensure process for COVID-19 vaccines, but these changes have caused widespread concerns about vaccine safety. Research literature has long indicated that citizens' perceptions of protective actions will determine their behaviors, and thus, the relationship between vaccine perception and vaccination intention needs to be assessed. To better understand vaccination willingness, especially in rural populations, this study surveyed 492 households from six townships in the Ya'an region of China's Sichuan Province in November 2020. The survey followed the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM) framework for collecting perceptions about the influenza and COVID-19 vaccines as protective actions, information sources, emergency preparedness, emotional response, and demographic characteristics. The results showed that influenza vaccine perceptions significantly affected people's COVID-19 vaccination perceptions and intentions. Unlike previous vaccination willingness and other COVID-19 studies, this study found that perceptions of resource-related attributes and health-related attributes both affected COVID-19 vaccination intentions, but the former were slightly stronger than the latter. Moreover, these effects were strongest among respondents who had the most positive perceptions of their influenza vaccine experience. This study's findings will benefit local authorities in designing appropriate policies and measures (e.g., hazard education, risk communication, vaccination convenience enhancement) for increasing vaccination compliance for the current and future pandemics.

Attitudes and willingness to pay for clean heating by typical households: a case study of rural areas in Yongcheng City, Henan Province, China.

Understanding households' attitudes and willingness to pay (WTP) for clean heating can provide a scientific basis for decision-makers to assess the potential to develop clean heating, choose heating methods, and formulate subsidy standards in the region. In this paper, the double-bounded dichotomous contingent valuation method-modified by the spike model-was used to better estimate the actual WTP of households through a sample survey of 456 households in rural areas of Yongcheng City, China, in 2021. The factors influencing attitudes and WTP were examined to reveal mechanisms of accepting clean heating. The results showed that 94.96% of households were willing to pay for clean heating. The annual WTP was 1071 yuan per household, more than eight times the current heating cost. Factors that affect clean heating attitudes do not necessarily affect the WTP. Specifically, gender, length of time spent living at home, and family income had significant influences on WTP, whereas the educational level, adaptive perceptions in relation to environmental perceptions, and the recognition variables for gender equality in energy consumption had a significant impact on attitudes. It is worth noting that elderly people and females were identified as vulnerable groups in the implementation of clean heating.