Mild histological distortions in rat organs after a 14-day oral exposure to the slime extract of African giant land snails.

Objective: Snail slime possesses various pharmacological activities that are becoming attractive for zootherapy, thereby necessitating the profiling of its safety and toxicity. Therefore, using OECD 425 guidelines, this study assessed the acute toxicity of Archachatina marginata slime extract and performed a histological analysis of the vital organs. Methods: Eighteen (18) Wistar rats were assigned randomly into three groups: control, 2000 mg/kg, and 5000 mg/kg bw slime extract. The dosing of the animals with 2000 mg/kg bw and 5000 mg/kg bw was done according to the limit test procedure, after which the animals were observed for 14 days. During the observation period, clinical and behavioral changes were recorded. The rats were euthanized after 14 days of monitoring, and their essential organs were excised for gross histological examination. Results: There was no mortality during the observation period, and the LD50 of A. marginata slime extract was determined to be greater than 5000 mg/kg bw. Although there were no behavioral alterations in the rats after oral exposure to the slime extract, the histological examination revealed mild cellular distortions in the rat organs. Furthermore, a preliminary chemical analysis of the slime extract revealed the presence of flavonoids and phenolics. Conclusion: A. marginata slime extracts may be grouped as low toxic substance based on the results obtained (LD50 > 2000 - 5000 mg/kg). However, the histological distortions in rat organs following acute oral exposure to the snail slime extract not only warrant further, in-depth toxicological investigations but also caution in its use for traditional medicinal purposes.

Faith healing: the threat of "Surucucu" and the local cure of Amazon floodplain dwellers.

BACKGROUND: Snakebites are considered a neglected tropical disease responsible for many accidents, some fatal, and are related to poverty. The Brazilian Amazon has the highest incidence of snakebites per inhabitant, with the state of Pará having the most reported cases. For those who have difficult access to hospitals and pharmacies, this issue is even more urgent. METHODS: In this research, we worked together with the population of five riverine communities in Aritapera (Santarém-PA), a fluvial island located in the Lower Amazon floodplain (várzeas), in order to identify the species of venomous snakes and create a record of snakebites in the region and treatments carried out. RESULTS: Dwellers reported a high frequency of encounters throughout the year and mentioned five venomous ethnospecies, although we identified only Bothrops atrox. Approximately 28.7% of the participants had already been bitten, and in 15.8% of the interviews, they mentioned deaths from snakebites. The treatments varied between hospitalization (42.8%), home treatments (23.8%), both together (25.4%) and healers (7.9%). There were cases where no treatment, or just religious treatment, was performed. In general, no serious sequelae were reported. Although home treatments were more common in the past, many people maintained the practice of using them before going to the hospital. Among the most used are Pau X and the fat of the Amazon River Dolphin. The latter appears to be a recent discovery by locals and is considered very efficient both for humans and animals. CONCLUSION: Difficult access to health centers, a lack of energy to store antivenom and a high rate of encounters with snake place Aritapera dwellers in a vulnerable situation regarding snakebite accidents. In this context, they discovered treatments that improved their well-being until hospitalization. As the Amazon River dolphin is an endangered species, the use of its fat requires attention. In this sense, the dissemination of this knowledge is important to encourage studies that investigate which properties of this fat act as counterpoisons. By discovering substitutes that can be incorporated in other rural and remote communities, an economic and ecologically viable option for the health of residents can be promoted, in addition to valuing traditional knowledge.

Ethnopharmacology, ethnomedicine, and wildlife conservation.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: There are longstanding traditions of animal-derived products being employed as medicines, and they continue to be important in many traditional cultural healthcare practices. However, the populations of numerous so-used animals are known to be threatened with extirpation by such practices. Ethnopharmacological studies documenting these animal-derived drugs are not only interesting from an anthropological standpoint, but they are also relevant from a wildlife conservation perspective - especially since ethnopharmacologists are intermediaries between indigenous and scientific communities, placing them at the forefront of being able to ethically access information to address these issues. METHODS: Using the example of documenting culturally acceptable substitute materials for animal products (which ultimately also extends to flora), we explore the intersection of ethnopharmacology, biocultural resources, and wildlife conservation. RESULTS: Pharmacological efficacy and symbolism are factors influencing the utilization of traditional medicines. Achieving the integration of conservation aims with ethnopharmacology requires a nuanced understanding of both factors, along with fair adjudication when conservation and cultural aims diverge. Ethnopharmacology is suitably placed for making conservation-orientated recommendations - including investigating more sustainable substitutes for animal products in the context of medical efficacy, and for engaging ethically with local communities to facilitate information generation aimed at protecting the environment and their traditions. CONCLUSION: We suggest an integrative approach to ethnopharmacological studies investigating medicinal bioresource use. This approach is considerate of species' conservation profiles, the substitutability and pharmacological efficacy of biocultural resources, indigenous and cultural rights, and a collaborative ethos for stakeholder engagement.

Ethnopharmacological uses of fauna among the people of central Punjab, Pakistan.

Introduction: The utilization of fauna and fauna-based byproducts in ethnomedicinal usages has been a longstanding human activity, practiced across various cultures worldwide. This study focuses on investigating the utilization of animal-based traditional medicine by the people of Pakistan, specifically in the Gujranwala area. Methods: Data collection took place from January to September 2019 through interviews with local communities. Ethnomedicinal applications of animal products were analyzed using several indices, including Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), Relative Popularity Level (RPL), Folk Use Value (FL), and Relative Occurrence Percentage (ROP). Results: The study identified the use of different body parts of 54 species of animals in treating various diseases and health issues. These include but are not limited to skin infections, sexual problems, pain management (e.g., in the backbone and joints), eyesight issues, immunity enhancement, cold, weakness, burns, smallpox, wounds, poisoning, muscular pain, arthritis, diabetes, fever, epilepsy, allergies, asthma, herpes, ear pain, paralysis, cough, swelling, cancer, bronchitis, girls' maturity, and stomach-related problems. Certain species of fauna were noted by informers with high "frequency of citation" (FC), ranging from 1 to 77. For instance, the black cobra was the most frequently cited animal for eyesight issues (FC = 77), followed by the domestic rabbit for burn treatment (FC = 67), and the Indus Valley spiny-tailed ground lizard for sexual problems (FC = 66). Passer domesticus and Gallus gallus were noted to have the highest ROP value of 99. Discussion: The findings of this study provide valuable preliminary insights for the conservation of fauna in the Gujranwala region of Punjab, Pakistan. Additionally, screening these animals for medicinally active compounds could potentially lead to the development of novel animal-based medications, contributing to both traditional medicine preservation and modern pharmaceutical advancements.

Biodiversity conservation, human-animal interactions, and zootherapy in ecological knowledge of Indonesian Healers.

We examined the entanglement of biodiversity conservation, human-animal interactions, zootherapy, and local beliefs among Sumatran Healers and their local community by completing an ethnography of 43 Indigenous Healers across 8 tribes in Bengkulu Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Data collection tools were interviews, observations, videos, photographs, and a researcher journal. Of the 43 Healers, 30 used animals and mentioned 62 species. Of the animals identified, the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List lists 34% (n = 21) as endangered, decreasing, or vulnerable, including Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae), Sumatran elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus), and Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis). Of the 30 Healers using animals, 50% (n = 15) practiced healing with at least one endangered, decreasing, or vulnerable animal. We defined 3 personas: Healer self-persona, Healer-imposed persona, and community-imposed persona. A persona represented a group's opinions and sentiments related to Healers killing animals for medicinal purposes. Using an iterative data analysis process, we grouped the data across the 3 personas into 5 themes: ease of killing and preparing animals, emotions related to killing animals, animal value, relationship to religion, and Healers are tricksters. The complexity of merging the identities of Healers and the community within an actor-network embodies the relationality of actions, interactions, and feelings among Healers, between Healers and animals, and between Healers and the community. Conservationists should be cognizant of Healers' medicinal use of animals, views of human-animal interactions, and zootherapy from all social and emotional perspectives. The data led to defining Indigenous Healer ecological knowledge components of zootherapy, human-animal interactions, and biodiversity conservation.

Conservación de la biodiversidad, interacciones humano­fauna y zooterapia dentro del conocimiento ecológico de los curanderos indonesios Resumen Analizamos la complejidad de la conservación de la biodiversidad, las interacciones humano­fauna, la zooterapia y las creencias locales de los curanderos y su comunidad local mediante una etnografía de 43 curanderos indígenas de ocho tribus en la provincia de Bengkulu en Sumatra, Indonesia. Usamos entrevistas, observaciones, videos, fotografías y una bitácora de investigador como herramientas de recolección de datos. De los 43 curanderos, 30 usaban animales y mencionaron 62 especies. El 34% (n = 21) de los animales identificados están catalogados como en peligro, en disminución o vulnerables en la Lista Roja de la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza, incluidos el tigre de Sumatra (Panthera tigris sumatrae), el elefante de Sumatra (Elephas maximus sumatranus) y el rinoceronte de Sumatra (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis). De los 30 curanderos que usan animales, el 50% (n = 15) practica la sanación con al menos una especie en peligro, en disminución o vulnerable. Definimos tres percepciones: autopercepción de curandero, percepción impuesta de curandero y percepción impuesta de comunidad. Cada percepción representó las opiniones y sentimientos de un grupo con respecto a la matanza de animales por cuestiones medicinales. Usamos un proceso de análisis de datos repetitivos para agrupar la información de las tres percepciones en tres temas: facilidad para matar y preparar animales, emociones relacionadas con matar animales, valor del animal, relación con la religión y los curanderos son estafadores. La complejidad de combinar las identidades de los curanderos dentro de una red de actores representa cómo se relacionan las acciones, interacciones y sentimientos dentro de la comunidad de curanderos, entre los curanderos y los animales y entre los curanderos y la comunidad. Los conservacionistas deben ser conscientes desde todas las perspectivas sociales y emocionales del uso medicinal que los curanderos dan a los animales, las percepciones sobre las interacciones humano­fauna y la zooterapia. Esta información nos llevó a definir los componentes del conocimiento ecológico de los curanderos indígenas en materia de zooterapia, interacciones humano­fauna y conservación de la biodiversidad.

Wildlife as Food and Medicine in Brazil: A Neglected Zoonotic Risk?

The practice of consuming wild fauna in Brazil is both culturally and socioeconomically questionable. Wild animals and their byproducts are sought for nutritional, medicinal, and/or supernatural reasons, with some taxa (e.g., songbirds) being kept as pets. This practice is concentrated in traditional and rural communities, as well as the rural exodus populations in large urban centers, maintained both by cultural preferences and for their role in food safety in part of the rural exodus community. A total of 564 taxa are known to be sold in wet markets in Brazil, with birds, fish, and mammals being the most commonly listed. There is great zoonotic outbreak potential in this consumption chain given the diversity of species involved (with several listed being known reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens), invasion of wild environments for hunting, unsanitary processing of carcasses, and consumption of most/all biotopes of the animal, as well as the creation of favorable conditions to cross-species pathogen transmission. Given its socioeconomic situation and the global trends in disease emergence, there is a risk of the future emergence of a Public Health Emergency of International Concern in Brazil through wildlife consumption.

Barcoding and traditional health practitioner perspectives are informative to monitor and conserve frogs and reptiles traded for traditional medicine in urban South Africa.

Previous literature suggests that Indigenous cultural practices, specifically traditional medicine, are commonplace among urban communities contrary to the general conception that such practices are restricted to rural societies. We reviewed previous literature for records of herptiles (frog and reptile species) sold by traditional health practitioners in urban South Africa, then used visual confirmation surveys, DNA barcoding and folk taxonomy to identify the herptile species that were on sale. Additionally, we interviewed 11 IsiZulu and SePedi speaking traditional health practitioners to document details of the collection and pricing of herptile specimens along with the practitioners' views of current conservation measures for traditional medicine markets. The 34 herptile species recorded in previous literature on traditional medicine markets included endangered and non-native species. Spectrophotometry measurements of the DNA we extracted from the tissue of herptiles used in traditional medicine were an unreliable predictor of whether those extractions would be suitable for further experimental work. From our initial set of 111 tissue samples, 81 sequencing reactions were successful and 55 of those sequences had species-level matches to COI reference sequences on the NCBI GenBank and/or BOLD databases. Molecular identification revealed that traditional health practitioners correctly labelled 77% of the samples that we successfully identified with DNA barcoding in this study. Our mixed methodology approach is useful for conservation planning as it updates knowledge of animal use in Indigenous remedies and can accurately identify species of high conservation priority. Furthermore, this study highlights the possibility of collaborative conservation planning with traditional health practitioners.

An ethnozoological study of traditional medicinal animals and their products from Wolaita, Southern Ethiopia.

Background: Ethiopia has a diverse set of floral and faunal resources that are used for primary health care in traditional or indigenous medicine. However, because they are passed down orally from one generation to the next, this indigenous medical practice is being ignored and is continuing to disappear. As a result, the goal of this ethnozoological study was to assess and document traditional healers' and indigenous people's knowledge in use of animal parts or products for medical purposes in the Diguna Fango District of Wolaita, Ethiopia. Materials and methods: From March 2021 to June 2021, a field survey was conducted using personal interviews, semistructured questionnaires, and open group discussions utilizing a cross-sectional study approach. Totally, two hundred informants (125 men and 75 women) were provided information on the medicinal uses of various animals. Using a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, the collected ethnozoological data were analyzed. The informant consensus factor, use value, and degree of fidelity were all determined. Results: More than 50 different human ailments were treated using 39 different animal parts or products. Mammals had the highest use rate (N = 26, 66.67%). In the category of treating endocrine, metabolic, and nutritional diseases, Hystrix cristata had a high-fidelity level (FL = 95%). The highest use value (a maximum of 1.0) was for Bos taurus. The disease categories with the highest informant consensus factor (ICF) values were human immune deficiency disease, reproductive health, and genito-urinary ailment categories (ICF = 1.00). Wild animals (74%) outnumbered domestic animals (26%). The most common administration route (50%) was oral, and raw remedies had the highest use reports (58.9%). Conclusions: The findings revealed that the study area contains a wealth of ethnozoological knowledge that could be useful in the formulation of novel drugs. The findings of the study should therefore be put to use in prospective ethnozoological, ethnopharmacological, and conservation-related studies in the region.

Histological Study of Glandular Variability in the Skin of the Natterjack Toad-Epidalea calamita (Laurenti, 1768)-Used in Spanish Historical Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Ethnomedicine.

Common toads have been used since ancient times for remedies and thus constitute excellent biological material for pharmacological and natural product research. According to the results of a previous analysis of the therapeutic use of amphibians in Spain, we decided to carry out a histological study that provides a complementary view of their ethnopharmacology, through the natterjack toad (Epidalea calamita). This species possesses a characteristic integument, where the parotoid glands stand out, and it has been used in different ethnoveterinary and ethnomedical practices. This histological study of their glandular variability allow us to understand the stages through which the animal synthesises and stores a heterogeneous glandular content according to the areas of the body and the functional moment of the glands. To study tegumentary cytology, a high-resolution, plastic embedding, semi-thin (1 micron) section method was applied. Up to 20 skin patches sampled from the dorsal and ventral sides were processed from the two adult specimens collected, which were roadkill. Serous/venom glands display a genetic and biochemical complexity, leading to a cocktail that remains stored (and perhaps changes over time) until extrusion, but mucous glands, working continuously to produce a surface protection layer, also produce a set of active protein (and other) substances that dissolve into mucous material, making a biologically active covering. This study provides a better understanding of the use of traditional remedies in ethnoveterinary medicine.

Traditional Uses of Animals in the Himalayan Region of Azad Jammu and Kashmir.

Background: The use of animals and animal-derived products in ethnopharmacological applications is an ancient human practice that continues in many regions today. The local people of the Himalayan region harbor rich traditional knowledge used to treat a variety of human ailments. The present study was intended with the aim of examining animal-based traditional medicine utilized by the population of the Himalayan region of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Methods: Data were collected from 2017 to 2019 through individual and group interviews. Data on traditional uses of animal products were analyzed, utilizing following indices such as the frequency of citation, use value, relative importance, similarity index, principal component analysis, and cluster analysis to find the highly preferred species in the area. Results: Ethnomedicinal uses of 62 species of vertebrates and invertebrates were documented. Flesh, fat, bone, whole body, milk, skin, egg, head, feathers, bile, blood, and honey were all used in these applications. The uses of 25 animals are reported here for the first time from the study area (mainly insects and birds, including iconic species like the kalij pheasant, Lophura leucomelanos; Himalayan monal, L. impejanus; and western tragopon, Tragopan melanocephalus). The diversity and range of animal-based medicines utilized in these communities are indications of their strong connections with local ecosystems. Conclusion: Our results provide baseline data valuable for the conservation of vertebrate and invertebrate diversity in the region of Himalayan of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. It is possible that screening this fauna for medicinally active chemicals could contribute to the development of new animal-based drugs.

Antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiviral activity, and gas chromatographic analysis of Varanus griseus oil extracts.

There is an urgent need to develop natural antimicrobials for the control of rapidly mutating drug-resistant bacteria and poultry viruses. Five extracts were prepared using diethyl ether, ethyl acetate, methanol, 1-butanol and n-hexane from abdominal fats of Varanus griseus locally known as Indian desert monitor. Antibacterial, antioxidant and antiviral activities from oil extracts were done through disc diffusion method, stable 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging assay and in ovo antiviral assay, respectively. The gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses were used to determine principal active compounds and chemical profile of each oil extract. n-Hexane extract showed clear zones of inhibition (ZOI) against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae (12 ± 0.5 mm, 9 ± 0.5 mm, and 9 ± 0.5 mm) while diethyl ether extract exhibited significant antibacterial activity (11 ± 0.5 mm) against Proteus vulgaris only. In case of drug-resistant strains, methanol extract was active (6 ± 0.5 mm) against Staphylococcus aureus, whereas n-hexane extract has shown ZOI 11 ± 0.5 mm against P. aeruginosa. Range of percentage scavenging activity of V. griseus oil extracts from DPPH free radical assay was 34.9-70.7%. For antiviral potential, growth of new castle disease virus (NDV) was effectively inhibited by all five extracts (HA titer = 0-4). The highest antiviral activity against avian influenza virus (H9N2) was observed from methanol, diethyl ether and 1-Butanol oil extracts with HA titers of 2, 2 and 0, respectively. Methanol, diethyl ether, 1-butanol and n-hexane oil extracts produced best hemagglutination assay (HA) titer values (0, 0, 4 and 0) against infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). Ethyl acetate and 1-Butanol extract exhibited good antiviral potential against infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) with indirect hemagglutination assay (IHA) titers of 8 and 4, respectively. Main classes of identified compounds through gas chromatography were aldehydes, fatty acids, phenols and esters. GC-MS identified 11 bioactive compounds in V. griseus oil extracts. It is summarized that V. griseus oil has strong antioxidant activity and good antimicrobial potential because of its bioactive compounds.

A systematic review on traditional medicinal Animal's parts and products used for the treatment of respiratory tract disorders in Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Respiratory diseases affect more than one billion people worldwide. Although medicinal animals have huge importance in primary health care, limited effort applied so far been in Ethiopia to properly identify, document, and conserve these animals and the related knowledge. This systematic review was aimed to identify the medicinal animals and document reports on the use of medicinal animals for the management of respiratory disorders. METHODS: Both published and unpublished articles on the ethnozoological use of medicinal animals were searched using electronic database (Science Direct, Pub Med, Google Scholar, Scopus, hinari, and research gate) and institutional repositories. Different keywords were used separately and in combination using Boolean operators "OR" or "AND" as well as medical subject heading [MeSH] terms. Studies that did not address respiratory disorders were excluded. Data were extracted using Microsoft excel spread sheet. RESULTS: Among 211 articles obtained from database searches, nine articles were eligible and included in the review. Thirty two medicinal animals were reported for treatment of respiratory disorders. Mammals were the most commonly (43.8%) used medicinal animals. Meat was reported as the most commonly (22.6%) used medicinal remedy. CONCLUSIONS: Most of the medicinal remedies were obtained from mammals and administered orally. As the majority of the medicinal animals were obtained from wild sources, due attention should be given to conserve them. Besides, this traditional medicinal knowledge should be integrated to modern medicine to investigate the acute and chronic toxicity profile and efficacy of these remedies to identify potential lead compounds to modern drugs.

Relics and Historical Uses of Human Zootherapeutic Products in Contemporary Spanish Ethnoveterinary Medicine.

(1) Background: this review documents the wide repertoire of practices and remedies based on the use of human-derived products in Spanish ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) from the early 20th century to the present. These practices are compared with historical data and those of other countries; (2) Methods: a search using advanced functions in the most important databases in the fields of ethnobiology, EVM, folklore, and ethnography was performed. Information was obtained from 29 documentary sources; (3) Results: from the search of the literature, 46 use-reports related to the veterinary use of human urine, menstrual fluid, saliva, breast milk, and faeces were recorded. These zootherapeutic resources are/were used to treat 20 animal diseases, in particular dermatological ailments. In addition, many practices of the magical-religious type are documented; (4) Conclusions: the veterinary uses described and analysed here are fundamental to the development of therapeutic tools and creating teaching and learning processes in new popular veterinary practices adapted to the users and those who demand them. The information collected could form a scientific foundation for future inventories of local veterinary knowledge (LVK) and research addressing the discovery of new drugs for livestock. This work contributes to the inventory of some uses, traditional practices, and rituals seriously threatened by the progressive loss of LVK in Europe.

Zootherapeutic uses of animals excreta: the case of elephant dung and urine use in Sayaboury province, Laos.

BACKGROUND: Despite a widespread aversion towards faeces and urine, animal excreta are used in traditional medicine in many countries since centuries, but records are scattered and few therapeutic uses have been accurately documented while in the current context of emerging zoonoses such records may be of major interest. METHODOLOGY: In this study, we investigated the therapeutic uses that mahouts in Xayaboury province, Lao PDR make of elephant urine and faeces as well as of the brood chamber that beetles (Heliocopris dominus) fashion from elephant dung. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with mahouts on elephant diet, health problems and responses to disease, andwhether they use elephant products. Data were supplemented by interviews with traditional healers. RESULTS: Seven respondents reported the use of elephant urine in ethnoveterinary care for elephants and in human medicine in case of diabetes and otitis. 25 respondents reported therapeutic use of elephant faeces (EF) and elephant dung beetle brood chambers. The major indications are gastrointestinal and skin problems. Macerations or decoctions are drunk or used externally as a lotion. The mahouts attribute the therapeutic effectiveness of EFs to their content which includes the remains of many species from the elephant diet which they consider to be medicinal. DISCUSSION: The indications of these uses are consistent with pharmacological and clinical studies highlighting the properties of different animals' urine and faeces and their curative potential tested in vivo. The acknowledgement by the mahouts of medicinal properties of elephant faecal bolus contrasts with the rare justifications of animal material use recorded in zootherapeutic studies, which falls within the symbolic domain. However, numerous studies highlight the preponderant role of the microbiota in physiological processes, raising the hypothesis of a curative action of EF, by rebalancing the user's microbiota. CONCLUSION: The therapeutic uses of EF preparations despite their possible curative properties are a potential source of zoonotic transmission from elephants to humans. In the current context of globalisation of trade which favours the emergence of zoonoses and in relation with the issue of One Health, it becomes crucial to further document the zootherapeutic practices to prevent emerging diseases. As elephants and local related ethnoethological knowledge are threatened, documenting them is urgent to contribute to their preservation.

Medicinal Animals and Plants as Alternative and Complementary Medicine in Southern Regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

Background: Local communities use animals and plants as common traditional therapies for various diseases. The study aimed to document animals and animal-plant mixture recipes that are used as alternative and complementary medicine in southern regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Methods: The data were collected (2017-2018) in three remote areas (Dera Ismail Khan, Bannu, and Lakki Marwat) through questionnaires and face-to-face interviews with local inhabitants. Data on ethnomedicinal uses and cultural values of animal products or parts and their mixture with plants were analyzed using various indices such as frequency of citation (FC), informant consensus (FIC), and fidelity level (FL) to find the highly preferred species in the area. Results: A total of 185 informants (117 females and 68 males) were interviewed. The study documented 32 animal species, vertebrates (n = 24) and invertebrates (n = 8), for curing 37 types of diseases. Mammals (n = 13) were among the most commonly utilized species followed by birds (n = 8), arthropods (n = 7), reptiles (n = 2), and fishes and annelids (n = 1 each). Among the reported animals, Herpestes edwardsi (mongoose), Macaca mulatta (monkey), Labeo rohita (rohu), Oryctolagus cuniculus (rabbit), and Streptopelia decaocto (dove) were the newly reported species used as alternative medicine. The meat of Capra hircus (goat), monkey, and rabbit was used to treat chronic diseases such as hepatitis C, cancer, epilepsy, and asthma. A total of 17 plants belonging to 15 botanical families were used in combination with animal parts/products. The commonly used families were Piperaceae (31%) followed by Apiaceae (27%). The notable plant species in combination with animal products were Curcuma longa, Piper nigrum, Coriandrum sativum, Brassica rapa, and Phoenix dactylifera. Seeds were the highest used part in animal-plant mixture recipes. Gallus gallus (chicken) and Columba livia (pigeon) secured the highest (FC = 28) and (FL = 80%), respectively. FIC results had shown the highest degree of consensus for general body weakness (FIC = 0.88) and pyrexia (FIC = 0.86). Conclusion: Our findings suggest that local communities in the southern regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa have substantial knowledge about the formulation of ethnomedicines from both flora and fauna that need urgent documentation to avoid eroding and for conservational purposes. The newly reported phytozootherapeutic recipes and animal species can potentially be a source of pharmacologically active constituents and should be checked experimentally for further confirmation.

The use of domestic animals and their derivative products in contemporary Spanish ethnoveterinary medicine.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: This review documents the wide and varied repertoire of traditional practices and remedies based on the use of domestic animals in Spanish ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) from the early 20th century to the present. Empirical practices, both ritual and magical, are recorded, and these EVM data are compared with those of other countries in the Mediterranean region and Latin America. The data collected here could form a scientific foundation for future inventories of local veterinary knowledge (LVK) and research addressing the discovery of new drugs for livestock and the validation of the effects. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A qualitative systematic review of the most important databases in the fields of ethnobiology, ethnoveterinary medicine, folklore and ethnography was performed. Information and use-reports were obtained from more than 60 documentary sources. RESULTS: We recorded the use of nine domestic animal species and one hybrid (the mule) and a total of 171 empirical remedies based on the use of a single species. A wide diversity of body parts or derivative products were/are used. Fat was/is the most commonly used product, being used in 71 remedies (42%). These zootherapeutic resources were/are used to treat or prevent a total of 69 animal diseases or medical conditions, in particular dermatological, reproductive and digestive ailments, together with some infectious diseases. Sheep, cattle, goats and equines form the group of domestic animals in which the greatest number of useful species is employed. In addition, many remedies and practices of the magical-religious type are documented. In comparison with other culturally related areas, there is a greater parallelism in the animals and body parts and derivative products used, and the ailments treated. CONCLUSIONS: Contemporary Spanish EVM practices amass a great richness of domestic animal-based remedies. A diversity of body parts or derivative products has been used, offering a cultural heritage that could be a fundamental step in the discovery of new and low-cost drugs for treating livestock and alternative materials for pharmaceutical purposes, and it can contribute to the creation of new strategies for the conservation of natural resources and management of endangered species. The usage of zootherapeutic products derived from wild animals can be replaced by the use of products isolated from domestic animals. Finally, this overview contributes to the inventory of some uses, traditional practices and rituals seriously threatened by the progressive loss of LVK.

Zoopharmacology: A Way to Discover New Cancer Treatments.

Zoopharmacognosy is the multidisciplinary approach of the self-medication behavior of many kinds of animals. Recent studies showed the presence of antitumoral secondary metabolites in some of the plants employed by animals and their use for the same therapeutic purposes in humans. Other related and sometimes confused term is Zootherapy, which consists on the employment of animal parts and/or their by-products such as toxins, venoms, etc., to treat different human ailments. Therefore, the aim of this work is to provide a brief insight for the use of Zoopharmacology (comprising Zoopharmacognosy and Zootherapy) as new paths to discover drugs studying animal behavior and/or using compounds derived from animals. This work is focused on the approaches related to cancer, in order to propose a new promising line of research to overcome multidrug resistance (MDR). This novel subject will encourage the use of new alternative prospective ways to find new medicines.

Rich yet undocumented ethnozoological practices of socio-culturally diverse indigenous communities of Sikkim Himalaya, India.

AIM OF THE STUDY: The indigenous people of Sikkim Himalaya possess indispensable traditional knowledge including the use of flora and fauna due to their close association with nature. The present study aims to explore the rich and undocumented ethnozoological practices of different indigenous communities of the Sikkim Himalaya. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data was collected using semi-structured questionnaire interviews among the traditional healers and indigenous communities of Sikkim. A total of 91 respondents covering all four districts of Sikkim were interviewed from September 2017-April 2018. RESULTS: This study recorded a total of 59 species belonging to nine taxonomic groups used for traditional ethnozoological practices by the indigenous communities of Sikkim. Mammals represented 58% of the total animals followed by birds (22%). Among the total, 71% of animal species were used for zootherapy whereas 29% were used for religious customs or shamanistic practices. Almost 64% species were used for treatment of more than one disease and the chief mode of preparation was by boiling the body parts. Among different parts used in traditional medicine, meat was most preferred while horns and hairs were mostly used for religious purposes. CONCLUSION: Present findings suggest that traditional medicine including zootherapy still serves as a source of primary healthcare in rural areas of Sikkim and provides an identity to the culture of a region. We recommend documentation of more such traditional medicinal systems along with scientific validation of traditional practices with modern tools. Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs), the legally formed bodies at local level, may be entrusted in documentation of such practices which might contribute significantly in the conservation of traditional practices and also preserves the associated traditional knowledge as per the provision of Biological Diversity Act of India.

Uses of wild vertebrates in traditional medicine by farmers in the region surrounding the Serra do Conduru State Park (Bahia, Brazil) / Usos de vertebrados silvestres na medicina tradicional por caçadores-agricultores da região do entorno do Parque Estadual Serra do Conduru (Bahia, Brasil)

Abstract: Wild and domestic animals and their by-products are important ingredients in the preparation of medicines traditionally used in folk medicine, present in various human cultures since antiquity. However, the decline in the number of species in neotropical regions as a result of hunting for various purposes, including food, medicine and magico-religious use, has placed some species - especially endemic species - at risk of extinction. In this context, the present study aimed to identify the wild vertebrate species used in folk medicine in five communities in the region surrounding the Serra do Conduru State Park (PESC), Bahia, Brazil. Forty-five hunter-farmers were interviewed, citing 23 species, from which 17 raw materials are extracted for prevention and/or treatment of 19 illnesses. Mammals were the most cited taxon followed by birds and reptiles. Among the species mentioned, Cuniculus paca is the most used for zootherapy purposes, followed by Salvator merianae and Sphiggurus insidiosus. There was dissimilarity between the communities in relation to the diversity of species used for zootherapy. Ten categories of body systems were classified for which the therapeutic resources are recommended. Disorders related to the middle and inner ear were the most cited. Some of the species mentioned are endangered, such as Bradypus torquatus and Lachesis muta. This research demonstrated that zootherapy is a traditional practice embedded in these communities. Further studies are needed to broaden knowledge of other species that may have important cultural value for these families, as well as to evaluate the potential implications of the uncontrolled use of these species in traditional medicine in an ecological context, since the practice of zootherapy can excerpt pressure on critical animal populations and threaten biodiversity.

Resumo: Animais silvestres, domésticos e seus subprodutos são ingredientes importantes na preparação de medicamentos tradicionalmente utilizados na medicina popular, presentes em várias culturas humanas desde a antiguidade. No entanto, a diminuição do número de espécies nas regiões neotropicais, por meio da caça para diversas finalidades, como uso alimentar, medicinal e mágico-religioso tem colocado espécies em risco de extinção, especialmente as endêmicas. Nesse contexto, o presente estudo objetivou identificar as espécies de vertebrados silvestres utilizadas na medicina popular em cinco comunidades na região do entorno do Parque Estadual Serra do Conduru (PESC), Bahia, Brasil. Foram entrevistados 45 caçadores-agricultores que citaram 23 espécies os quais são extraídas 17 matérias-primas para prevenção e/ou tratamento de 19 enfermidades. Os mamíferos foi o táxon com maior número de citações, seguido pelas aves e répteis. Dentre as espécies citadas a Cuniculus paca é a mais utilizada para fins zooterápicos, seguido por Salvator merianae e Sphiggurus insidiosus. As comunidades apresentaram uma dissimilaridade em relação a diversidade de espécies de uso zooterápicos. Foram classificadas 10 categorias dos sistemas corporais para os quais os recursos terapêuticos são recomendados. Transtornos relacionados ao ouvido médio e interno foram os mais citados. Algumas espécies citadas encontram-se ameaçadas de extinção, como a Bradypus torquatus e Lachesis muta. A pesquisa mostrou que a zooterapia é uma prática tradicional inserida nas comunidades. Estudos adicionais são necessários para ampliar o conhecimento sobre demais espécies que possivelmente desempenham importante valor cultural às famílias, bem como avaliar em um contexto ecológico às implicações que pode acarretar com o uso descontrolado dessas espécies na medicina tradicional, uma vez que a prática da zooterapia pode causar pressão sobre populações animais críticas e ameaçar a biodiversidade.

Traditional knowledge of invertebrates used for medicine and magical-religious purposes by traditional healers and indigenous populations in the Plateau Department, Republic of Benin.

BACKGROUND: Since ancient times, invertebrates have played an important role in the traditional medicine in many parts of the world. In south-eastern Benin, more specifically in the Plateau Department, invertebrates are widely used in folk medicine. However, studies on their therapeutic use has been neglected and their magical-religious purposes are poorly understood. The present study aims to document traditional knowledge related to the use of invertebrates for medicinal and magical-religious purposes by traditional healers and indigenous people of Plateau Department. METHODS: An ethno-sociological survey was conducted with 145 informants (80 traditional healers, 12 merchants of medicinal animals and 53 households) belonging to six ethnic groups, in 20 villages located in Plateau of Benin. Data were collected through the participatory rural appraisal method involving individual interviews and direct observations with semi-structured questionnaires. The collected data regarding various medicinal and magical-religious uses of invertebrates were analysed through informant consensus factor (ICF), use value (UV) and, fidelity level (FL). RESULTS: A total of 20 families and 38 species of invertebrates, distributed among 6 taxonomic categories, were found to be used to treat 50 different ailments. Insects occupied 64.7% of the total invertebrates listed. The African earthworm Eudrilus eugeniae K. and African giant snail Achatina achatina L. had the highest use values. The highest ICF value (1.0) was cited for diseases of the blood or blood-forming organs. A principal component analysis (PCA) revealed the influence of ethnic groups in the diseases treated with invertebrates. The highest FL (100%) was recorded for 12 invertebrate species treating various ailments. Most of invertebrate-based remedies were associated with plant species. The mode of administration was mainly oral and topical. Most of the invertebrate drugs were traditionally collected in nature or imported, mainly from Nigeria. In addition, 7 magical-religious practices are documented. CONCLUSIONS: Our results reveal that several invertebrate species play an important role in healing practices and magical-religious rituals in the Plateau Department. We suggest further studies to confirm the presence of any bioactive compounds on invertebrate species use in traditional medicine. In addition, this study highlights the need for ecological investigations of these species, in order to develop strategies for their conservation and sustainable use.