Occurrence and geochemistry of altered radioactive accessory minerals as sources of radionuclide in Mesozoic granite aquifers (Korea).

Accessory minerals in granitic rocks are unlikely significant radionuclide contributions to groundwater due to their remarkable durability. However, accessory minerals incorporating U and Th may suffer structural damages due to the radioactivity and become highly susceptible to alteration. This study investigates geochemistry coupled with textural analysis of the U-Th bearing accessory minerals using a field emission scanning electron microscope and an electron probe micro-analyzer. Altered zircons with numerous open structures related to the radioactive decay show higher contents of U and Th and low analytical totals. Some thorites show high contents of U and non-formula elements due to the hydrothermal alteration in the metamicted thorite. The cerianite including U occurs as micro-veinlet in fracture with trace of Fe and Mn oxides, which indicates secondary phase formation from the decomposed accessory minerals in an oxidizing environment. Some accessory minerals with the high content of U and Th have been found in Mesozoic granite terrain in South Korea, where high concentration levels of radionuclide in groundwater were also reported. The leaching of U may be more likely when the accessory minerals are highly metamicted or altered as found in our samples. The altered zircon and thorite of the study area could be major carriers of radioelement in Mesozoic granitic aquifers where the occurrence of soluble U-minerals has not been reported.

Chemical and mineralogical variability of sediment in a Quaternary aquifer from Huaihe River Basin, China: Implications for groundwater arsenic source and its mobilization.

Arsenic (As) is a conspicuous contaminant, and exposure to this element through contaminated drinking groundwater poses a significant challenge to public health. Geogenic groundwater arsenic is associated with sedimentary setting. This work concentrates on the investigation of lithology, elemental abundance and mineralogical compositions about the arsenic profile and its effect to the groundwater from Huaihe River Basin, China. There are 90 sediment samples from the borehole at the field monitoring sites were collected and analyzed. The results reveal that sedimentary concentrations of As, Fe, Mn, S, Al, N, organic carbon and mineralogical compositions vary across the Quaternary aquifer. Arsenic abundance of sediments is 10.63 ± 0.56 mg/kg, and peak As concentrations occur between 59.0 m and 64.8 m in fine particle sediments. The specific higher As concentrations in sedimentary aquifer are concordant with arsenic-rich groundwater around the investigated borehole. Fe, Mn, and Al depth profiles follow similar tendency to those of As. Sedimentary As concentrations are significantly correlated to Fe, Al, and Mn concentrations, but are not correlated to organic carbon and S concentrations. Arsenic probably exists in the form of non-crystalline colloids, and Fe, Al minerals are potential host minerals for arsenic. Under alkaline conditions, groundwater arsenic is released and enriched within the Quaternary aquifer by reductive dissolution of As-hosting Fe and Al minerals.

Geogenic contaminants and groundwater quality around Lake Victoria goldfields in northwestern Tanzania.

Geogenic contamination of groundwater is frequently associated with gold mining activities and related to drinking water quality problems worldwide. In Tanzania, elevated levels of trace elements (TEs) have been reported in drinking water sources within the Lake Victoria Basin, posing a serious health risk to communities. The present study aims to assess the groundwater quality with a focus on the concentration levels of geogenic contaminants in groundwater around the Lake Victoria goldfields in Geita and Mara districts. The water samples were collected from community drinking water sources and were analysed for physiochemical parameters (pH, EC, Eh), major ions, and trace elements. The analysed major ions included Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, SO42-, HCO3- and Cl- whereas the trace elements were As, Al, Li, Ba, B, Ti, V, U, Zr, Sr, Si, Mn Mo, Fe, Ni, Zn, Cr, Pb, Cd, and V. The present study revealed that the concentration levels of the major ions were mostly within the World Health Organization (WHO) drinking water standards in the following order of their relative abundance; for cations, Ca2+∼Na+>Mg2+>K+ and for anions was HCO3- > SO42- > NO3-, Cl- > PO43-. Statistical and geochemical modelling software such as 'R Studio', IBM SPSS, geochemical workbench, visual MINTEQ were used to understand the groundwater chemistry and evaluate its suitability for drinking purpose. The concentration of As in groundwater sources varies between below detection limit (bdl) and 300 µg/L, with highest levels in streams followed by shallow wells and boreholes. In approximately 48% of the analysed samples, As concentration exceeded the WHO drinking water guideline and Tanzania Bureau of Standards (TBS) guideline for drinking water value of 10 µg/L. The concentration of the analyzed TEs and mean values of physicochemical parameters were below the guideline limits based on WHO and TBS standards. The Canadian Council of Ministries of the Environment Water Quality Index (CCME WQI) shows that the overall water quality is acceptable with minimum threats of deviation from natural conditions. We recommend further geochemical exploration and the periodic risk assessment of groundwater in mining areas where high levels of As were recorded.

Fluoride contamination of groundwater resources in Ghana: Country-wide hazard modeling and estimated population at risk.

Most people in Ghana have no or only basic access to safely managed water. Especially in rural areas, much of the population relies on groundwater for drinking, which can be contaminated with fluoride and lead to dental fluorosis. Children under the age of two are particularly susceptible to the adverse effects of fluoride and can retain 80-90% of a fluoride dose, compared to 60% in adults. Despite numerous local studies, no spatially continuous picture exists of the fluoride contamination across Ghana, nor is there any estimate of what proportion of the population is potentially exposed to unsafe fluoride levels. Here, we spatially model the probability of fluoride concentrations exceeding 1.0 mg/L in groundwater across Ghana to identify risk areas and estimate the number of children and adults exposed to unsafe fluoride levels in drinking water. We use a set of geospatial predictor variables with random forest modeling and evaluate the model performance through spatial cross-validation. We found that approximately 15% of the area of Ghana, mainly in the northeast, has a high probability of fluoride contamination. The total at-risk population is about 920,000 persons, or 3% of the population, with an estimated 240,000 children (0-9 years) in at-risk areas. In some districts, such as Karaga, Gushiegu, Tamale and Mion, 4 out of 10 children are potentially exposed to fluoride poisoning. Geology and high evapotranspiration are the main drivers of fluoride enrichment in groundwater. Consequently, climate change might put even greater pressure on the area's water resources. Our hazard maps should raise awareness and understanding of geogenic fluoride contamination in Ghana and can advise decision making at local levels to avoid or mitigate fluoride-related risks.

A critical review on the occurrence and distribution of the uranium- and thorium-decay nuclides and their effect on the quality of groundwater.

This critical review presents the key factors that control the occurrence of natural elements from the uranium- and thorium-decay series, also known as naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM), including uranium, radium, radon, lead, polonium, and their isotopes in groundwater resources. Given their toxicity and radiation, elevated levels of these nuclides in drinking water pose human health risks, and therefore understanding the occurrence, sources, and factors that control the mobilization of these nuclides from aquifer rocks is critical for better groundwater management and human health protection. The concentrations of these nuclides in groundwater are a function of the groundwater residence time relative to the decay rates of the nuclides, as well as the net balance between nuclides mobilization (dissolution, desorption, recoil) and retention (adsorption, precipitation). This paper explores the factors that control this balance, including the relationships between the elemental chemistry (e.g., solubility and speciation), lithological and hydrogeological factors, groundwater geochemistry (e.g., redox state, pH, ionic strength, ion-pairs availability), and their combined effects and interactions. The various chemical properties of each of the nuclides results in different likelihoods for co-occurrence. For example, the primordial 238U, 222Rn, and, in cases of high colloid concentrations also 210Po, are all more likely to be found in oxic groundwater. In contrast, in reducing aquifers, Ra nuclides, 210Pb, and in absence of high colloid concentrations, 210Po, are more mobile and frequently occur in groundwater. In highly permeable sandstone aquifers that lack sufficient adsorption sites, Ra is often enriched, even in low salinity and oxic groundwater. This paper also highlights the isotope distributions, including those of relatively long-lived nuclides (238U/235U) with abundances that depend on geochemical conditions (e.g., fractionation induced from redox processes), as well as shorter-lived nuclides (234U/238U, 228Ra/226Ra, 224Ra/228Ra, 210Pb/222Rn, 210Po/210Pb) that are strongly influenced by physical (recoil), lithological, and geochemical factors. Special attention is paid in evaluating the ability to use these isotope variations to elucidate the sources of these nuclides in groundwater, mechanisms of their mobilization from the rock matrix (e.g., recoil, ion-exchange), and retention into secondary mineral phases and ion-exchange sites.

Meta-analysis of uranium contamination in groundwater of the alluvial plains of Punjab, northwest India: Status, health risk, and hydrogeochemical processes.

Despite numerous studies, there are many knowledge gaps in our understanding of uranium (U) contamination in the alluvial aquifers of Punjab, India. In this study, a large hydrogeochemical dataset was compiled to better understand the major factors controlling the mobility and enrichment of uranium (U) in this groundwater system. The results showed that shallow groundwaters (<60 m) are more contaminated with U than from deeper depths (>60 m). This effect was predominant in the Southwest districts of the Malwa, facing significant risk due to chemical toxicity of U. Groundwaters are mostly oxidizing and alkaline (median pH: 7.25 to 7.33) in nature. Spearman correlation analysis showed that U concentrations are more closely related to total dissolved solids (TDS), salinity, Na, K, HCO3-, NO3- Cl-, and F- in shallow water than deep water, but TDS and salinity remained highly correlated (U-TDS: ρ = 0.5 to 0.6; U-salinity: ρ = 0.5). This correlation suggests that the salt effect due to high competition between ions is the principal cause of U mobilization. This effect is evident when the U level increased with increasing mixed water species (Na-Cl, Mg-Cl, and Na-HCO3). Speciation data showed that the most dominant U species are Ca2UO2(CO3)2- and CaUO2(CO3)3-, which are responsible for the U mobility. Based on the field parameters, TDS along with pH and oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) were better fitted to U concentration above the WHO guideline value (30 µg.L-1), thus this combination could be used as a quick indicator of U contamination. The strong positive correlation of U with F- (ρ = 0.5) in shallow waters indicates that their primary source is geogenic, while anthropogenic factors such as canal irrigation, groundwater table decline, and use of agrochemicals (mainly nitrate fertilizers) as well as climate-related factors i.e., high evaporation under arid/semi-arid climatic conditions, which result in higher redox and TDS/salinity levels, may greatly affect enrichment of U. The geochemical rationale of this study will provide Science-based-policy implications for U health risk assessment in this region and further extrapolate these findings to other arid/semi-arid areas worldwide.

Months-long spike in aqueous arsenic following domestic well installation and disinfection: Short- and long-term drinking water quality implications.

Exposure to high concentration geogenic arsenic via groundwater is a worldwide health concern. Well installation introduces oxic drilling fluids and hypochlorite (a strong oxidant) for disinfection, thus inducing geochemical disequilibrium. Well installation causes changes in geochemistry lasting 12 + months, as illustrated in a recent study of 250 new domestic wells in Minnesota, north-central United States. One study well had extremely high initial arsenic (1550 µg/L) that substantially decreased after 15 months (5.2 µg/L). The drilling and development of the study well were typical and ordinary; nothing observable indicated the very high initial arsenic concentration. We hypothesized that oxidation of arsenic-containing sulfides (which lowers pH) combined with low pH dissolution of arsenic-bearing Fe (oxyhydr)oxides caused the very high arsenic concentration. Geochemical equilibrium considerations and modeling supported our hypothesis. Groundwater equilibrium redox conditions are poised at the Fe(III)(s)/Fe(II)(aq) stability boundary, indicating arsenic-bearing Fe (oxyhydr)oxide mineral sensitivity to pH and redox changes. Changing groundwater geochemistry can have negative implications for home water treatment (e.g., reduced arsenic removal efficiency, iron fouling), which can lead to ongoing but unrecognized hazard of arsenic exposure from domestic well water. Our results may inform arsenic mobilization processes and geochemical sensitivity in similarly complex aquifers in Southeast Asia and elsewhere.

Uranium(VI) attenuation in a carbonate-bearing oxic alluvial aquifer.

Uranium minerals are commonly found in soils and sediment across the United States at an average concentration of 2-4 mg/kg. Uranium occurs in the environment primarily in two forms, the oxidized, mostly soluble uranium(VI) form, or the reduced, sparingly soluble reduced uranium(IV) form. Here we describe subsurface geochemical conditions that result in low uranium concentrations in an alluvial aquifer with naturally occurring uranium in soils and sediments in the presence of complexing ligands under oxidizing conditions. Groundwater was saturated with respect to calcite and contained calcium (78-90 mg/L) with elevated levels of carbonate alkalinity (291-416 mg/L as HCO3-). X-ray adsorption near edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy identified that sediment-associated uranium was oxidized as a uranium(VI) form (85%). Calcite was the predominant mineral by mass in the ultrafine fraction in uranium-bearing sediments (>16 mg/kg). Groundwater geochemical modeling indicated calcite and/or a calcium-uranyl-carbonate mineral such as liebigite in equilibrium with groundwater. The δ13C (0.57‰ ± 0.15‰) was indicative of abiotic carbonate deposition. Thus, solid-phase uranium(VI) associated with carbonate is likely maintaining uranium(VI) groundwater levels below the maximum contaminant level (MCL; 30 µg/L), presenting a deposition mechanism for uranium attenuation rather than solely a means of mobilization.

Arsenic concentrations after drinking water well installation: Time-varying effects on arsenic mobilization.

Chronic exposure to geogenic arsenic via drinking water is a worldwide health concern. However, effects of well installation and operation on arsenic concentrations and mobilization are not well understood. This knowledge gap impacts both reliable detection of arsenic in drinking water and effective public health recommendations to reduce exposure to arsenic. This study examines changes in arsenic and redox geochemistry over one year following installation of 254 new domestic water wells in three regions of the north-central USA that commonly have elevated arsenic concentrations. Our regions' geologic settings share some important characteristics with other high-arsenic aquifers: igneous bedrock aquifers; or late Pleistocene-age glacial sand and gravel aquifers interbedded with aquitards. Over the study, arsenic concentrations increased by 16% or more in 25% of wells in glacial aquifer regions, and the redox conditions changed towards more reducing. In wells in the bedrock region, there was no significant change in arsenic concentrations, and redox conditions changed towards more oxidizing. Our findings illustrate the importance of understanding short- to moderate-term impacts of well installation and operation on arsenic and aqueous chemistry, as it relates to human exposure. Our study informs water quality sampling requirements, which currently do not consider the implications sampling timing with respect to well installation. Evaluating arsenic concentrations in samples from new wells in the context of general regional pH and redox conditions can provide information regarding the degree of disequilibrium created by well drilling. Our analysis approach may be transferable and scalable to similar aquifer settings across the globe.

FIMAR: A new Fluoride Index to mitigate geogenic contamination by Managed Aquifer Recharge.

The objective of this study is to develop a Fluoride Index for mitigation of geogenic contamination by Managed Aquifer Recharge (FIMAR). This index was tested by applying to the Pambar river basin in southern India. About 40% of the study area had fluoride >1.5 mg/L, contributed from the dissolution of fluorite, fluorapatite, biotite and hornblende. The relationship between groundwater level and fluoride concentration exhibited two types of relationship. In shallow wells, groundwater recharge during monsoon increases the groundwater level and dilutes the fluoride concentration. During summer, evaporation decreases the groundwater levels and increases the fluoride content. In deep wells, the fluoride-rich salts that is deposited in the unsaturated zone due to evaporation in the pre-monsoon season is flushed during groundwater recharge and thus, the fluoride concentration increases with increase in groundwater level. This relationship was used as a key layer in FIMAR. Overlay analysis including the well type derived from the groundwater level and fluoride fluctuation, average fluoride concentration, geology, geomorphology, soil, drainage density, land use, lineament density and thickness of the weathered zone indicated 30% of the area was suitable for MAR to mitigate fluoride contamination. Since the construction of new MAR structures is cost-intensive, it is proposed to rejuvenate the existing ponds in the areas identified by FIMAR to induce recharge and dilute fluoride concentration. The positive impact was confirmed using numerical and geochemical modelling. This proves that FIMAR can be used as a planning tool in fluoride endemic areas and that the future MAR methods will be beneficial to mitigate geogenic fluoride contamination.

Hydrogeochemical evidences for targeting sources of safe groundwater supply in arsenic-affected multi-level aquifer systems.

Delineation of safe aquifers becomes highly imperative and challenging to ensure sustainable drinking water supply in rural areas of multi-level aquifer systems with complex water circulation under the impact of both geogenic and anthropogenic contamination. This work characterized hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical features of a multi-level Quaternary aquifer system of the central Yangtze River Basin to search for evidences of locating aquifers least contaminated. The results indicate modern hydrologic cycling is active in shallow phreatic aquifer (SPA) and in upper part of middle confined aquifer (MCA-1). The lower part of middle confined aquifer (MCA-2) and deep confined aquifer (DCA) have ages ranging from 200 to 2000 years and 4000 to >20,000 years, respectively. Vertical variations of hydrochemical compositions and Cl/Br ratios suggest the gradually decreasing and increasing contribution with depth from anthropogenic activities and natural water-mineral interactions, respectively. The SPA is characterized by high levels of anthropogenic components (Cl-, SO42-, NO3-, organic pesticides and antibiotics). The MCA-1 is the main aquifer where most private tube wells were installed, typically contains geogenic As, Fe, Mn and NH4+ at concentration levels several hundred times higher than the national drinking water standard values. Organic-abundant geochemical and stagnant hydrogeological conditions favor their enrichment. Both MCA-2 and DCA are slightly influenced by geogenic contamination and groundwater pumping from public wells screened in MCA-2 does not or slightly perturbs the groundwater flow condition in MCA-2 and DCA. The cost-effective water supply strategy is either to maintain safe yield of groundwater from public wells screened in MCA-2, or to use the groundwater after simple filtration and aeration treatment in case that groundwater pumping in MCA-2 were over a "safe yield" or induced leakage of groundwater containing As, Fe, Mn and NH4+ from the overlying MCA-1. And DCA could serve as a source for water supply under emergency circumstances.

Generating false negatives and false positives for As and Mo concentrations in groundwater due to well installation.

Groundwater monitoring relies on the acquisition of 'representative' groundwater samples, which should reflect the ambient water quality at a given location. However, drilling of a monitoring well for sample acquisition has the potential to perturb groundwater conditions to a point that may prove to be detrimental to the monitoring objective. Following installation of 20 monitoring wells in close geographic proximity in central Florida, opposing concentration trends for As and Mo were observed. In the first year after well installation As and Mo concentrations increased in some wells by a factor of 2, while in others As and Mo concentrations decreased by a factor of up to 100. Given this relatively short period of time, a natural change in groundwater composition of such magnitude is not expected, leaving well installation itself as the likely cause for the observed concentration changes. Hence, initial concentrations were identified as 'false negatives' if concentrations increased with time or as 'false positives' if concentrations decreased. False negatives were observed if concentrations were already high, i.e., the As or Mo were present at the time of drilling. False positives were observed if concentrations were relatively lower, i.e., As or Mo were present at low concentrations of approximately 1 to 2µg/L before drilling, but then released from the aquifer matrix as a result of drilling. Generally, As and Mo were present in the aquifer matrix in either pyrite or organic matter, both of which are susceptible to dissolution if redox conditions change due to the addition of oxygen. Thus, introduction of an oxidant into an anoxic aquifer through use of an oxygen saturated drilling fluid served as the conceptual model for the trends where concentrations decreased with time. Mixing between drilling fluid and groundwater (i.e., dilution) was used as the conceptual model for scenarios where increasing trends were observed. Conceptual models were successfully tested through formulation and application of data-driven reactive transport models, using the USGS code MODFLOW in conjunction with the reactive multicomponent transport code PHT3D.

Arsenic, manganese and aluminum contamination in groundwater resources of Western Amazonia (Peru).

This paper presents a first integrated survey on the occurrence and distribution of geogenic contaminants in groundwater resources of Western Amazonia in Peru. An increasing number of groundwater wells have been constructed for drinking water purposes in the last decades; however, the chemical quality of the groundwater resources in the Amazon region is poorly studied. We collected groundwater from the regions of Iquitos and Pucallpa to analyze the hydrochemical characteristics, including trace elements. The source aquifer of each well was determined by interpretation of the available geological information, which identified four different aquifer types with distinct hydrochemical properties. The majority of the wells in two of the aquifer types tap groundwater enriched in aluminum, arsenic, or manganese at levels harmful to human health. Holocene alluvial aquifers along the main Amazon tributaries with anoxic, near pH-neutral groundwater contained high concentrations of arsenic (up to 700µg/L) and manganese (up to 4mg/L). Around Iquitos, the acidic groundwater (4.2≤pH≤5.5) from unconfined aquifers composed of pure sand had dissolved aluminum concentrations of up to 3.3mg/L. Groundwater from older or deeper aquifers generally was of good chemical quality. The high concentrations of toxic elements highlight the urgent need to assess the groundwater quality throughout Western Amazonia.

Influence of natural radon and metal contamination on surface water quality from a Brazilian Semiarid Region / Influência da contaminação natural pelo radônio e metais na qualidade das águas superficiais da Região Semiárida Brasileira

The Brazilian semiarid region presents some adverse environmental conditions for the settled population such as a restricted water availability and the presence of radon and metal natural sources that can contaminate the water reservoirs and consequently become a concern for human health. The present study evaluated the water quality of the Riacho das Cachoeiras Dam located in the urban area of Lajes Pintadas (state of Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil) as source for human consumption. An analysis of Physicochemical parameters, heavy metal content and Radon in water samples was performed along with the assessment of the water mutagenic potential through Micronucleus Test (MN) on Tradescantia pallida and Oreochromis niloticus. The content of metals in water for Al, Cd, and Ni were above water quality guidelines for human consumption. Moreover, high levels of Pb along with dissolved Radon were found. An acute and chronic mutagenic water capability was observed. These findings demonstrated that the water quality is unsuitable for human consumption due to the presence of high levels of contaminants mainly from geogenic origin and its deleterious effect on living systems.

A região semiárida brasileira apresenta condições ambientais adversas para população local, como a escassez na disponibilidade de água e a presença de fontes naturais de radônio e de metais que podem contaminar os reservatórios de água e, consequentemente, tornar-se um problema de saúde humana. O estudo avaliou a qualidade da água do Açude do Riacho das Cachoeiras localizado na área urbana de Lajes Pintadas (Rio Grande do Norte, Brasil) como fonte para o consumo humano. Foram realizadas análises físico-químicas, de conteúdo de metais e de radônio em amostras de água em conjunto com a avaliação do potencial mutagênico da água por meio do teste de micronúcleos (MN) em Tradescantia pallida e Oreochromis niloticus. Os metais Al, Cd, e Ni estavam acima das diretrizes de qualidade da água para o consumo humano. Além disso, foram encontrados altos níveis de Pb dissolvido, juntamente com o radônio. Observou -se um potencial de indução de efeito mutagênico nas amostras de água testadas, tanto na exposição aguda quanto na crônica. Estes resultados demonstram que a qualidade da água do Açude está imprópria para o consumo humano devido à presença de elevados níveis de contaminantes de origem geogênica, com capacidade de exercer efeito deletério sobre os organismos.

Assessing the environmental availability of heavy metals in geogenically contaminated soils of the Sierra de Aracena Natural Park (SW Spain). Is there a health risk?

Soil developed on mineralised bedrock areas of the Sierra de Aracena Natural Park (SW Spain) is geochemically characterised by naturally high levels of heavy metals and metalloids (notably Zn, Pb, Ag and Cd, but also As, Sb, Cu and Tl). To assess environmental availability, geochemical speciation and potential health risk of such geogenic trace elements, 24 randomly selected soil samples were subjected to one-step extraction procedures (0.01M CaCl2 and 0.05M EDTA), aqueous speciation modelling, and site-specific risk analysis. Metal fraction available for plant uptake or leaching to groundwater was found to be negligible (<1%) due to the low activity of dissolved and exchangeable ions in soil solution, as predicted from the CaCl2 extracts. Based on modelling calculations, free metal ions, primarily Cd(2+) and Zn(2+), were the dominant species in solution over the soil pH range of 5.8 to 7.8. For most metals, the EDTA-extractable fraction generally accounted for <5% suggesting that a limited reservoir of trace elements, mainly bound to Fe oxy-hydroxides, could be potentially available. The results of the health risk assessment for ingestion exposure to groundwater affected by soil leaching revealed that the hazard quotients of heavy metals are within the acceptable risk level. The cumulative hazard index (HI=0.55) fell below the regulatory threshold value of 1.0, even in the worst-case scenario being evaluated, leading to the conclusion that no toxic effects are expected to humans under the conditions and assumptions of the assessment.

The effects of lead sources on oral bioaccessibility in soil and implications for contaminated land risk management.

Lead (Pb) is a non-threshold toxin capable of inducing toxic effects at any blood level but availability of soil screening criteria for assessing potential health risks is limited. The oral bioaccessibility of Pb in 163 soil samples was attributed to sources through solubility estimation and domain identification. Samples were extracted following the Unified BARGE Method. Urban, mineralisation, peat and granite domains accounted for elevated Pb concentrations compared to rural samples. High Pb solubility explained moderate-high gastric (G) bioaccessible fractions throughout the study area. Higher maximum G concentrations were measured in urban (97.6 mg kg(-1)) and mineralisation (199.8 mg kg(-1)) domains. Higher average G concentrations occurred in mineralisation (36.4 mg kg(-1)) and granite (36.0 mg kg(-1)) domains. Findings suggest diffuse anthropogenic and widespread geogenic contamination could be capable of presenting health risks, having implications for land management decisions in jurisdictions where guidance advises these forms of pollution should not be regarded as contaminated land.