Crack Detection Method for Wind Turbine Tower Bolts Using Ultrasonic Spiral Phased Array.

High-strength bolts are crucial load-bearing components of wind turbine towers. They are highly susceptible to fatigue cracks over long-term service and require timely detection. However, due to the structural complexity and hidden nature of the cracks in wind turbine tower bolts, the small size of the cracks, and their variable propagation directions, detection signals carrying crack information are often drowned out by dense thread signals. Existing non-destructive testing methods are unable to quickly and accurately characterize small cracks at the thread roots. Therefore, we propose an ultrasonic phased array element arrangement method based on the Fermat spiral array. This method can greatly increase the fill rate of the phased array with small element spacing while reducing the effects of grating and sidelobes, thereby achieving high-energy excitation and accurate imaging with the ultrasonic phased array. This has significant theoretical and engineering application value for ensuring the safe and reliable service of key wind turbine components and for promoting the technological development of the wind power industry.

A Complementary Fusion-Based Multimodal Non-Destructive Testing and Evaluation Using Phased-Array Ultrasonic and Pulsed Thermography on a Composite Structure.

Combinative methodologies have the potential to address the drawbacks of unimodal non-destructive testing and evaluation (NDT & E) when inspecting multilayer structures. The aim of this study is to investigate the integration of information gathered via phased-array ultrasonic testing (PAUT) and pulsed thermography (PT), addressing the challenges posed by surface-level anomalies in PAUT and the limited deep penetration in PT. A center-of-mass-based registration method was proposed to align shapeless inspection results in consecutive insertions. Subsequently, the aligned inspection images were merged using complementary techniques, including maximum, weighted-averaging, depth-driven combination (DDC), and wavelet decomposition. The results indicated that although individual inspections may have lower mean absolute error (MAE) ratings than fused images, the use of complementary fusion improved defect identification in the total number of detections across numerous layers of the structure. Detection errors are analyzed, and a tendency to overestimate defect sizes is revealed with individual inspection methods. This study concludes that complementary fusion provides a more comprehensive understanding of overall defect detection throughout the thickness, highlighting the importance of leveraging multiple modalities for improved inspection outcomes in structural analysis.

Helmet Radio Frequency Phased Array Applicators Enhance Thermal Magnetic Resonance of Brain Tumors.

Thermal Magnetic Resonance (ThermalMR) integrates Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) diagnostics and targeted radio-frequency (RF) heating in a single theranostic device. The requirements for MRI (magnetic field) and targeted RF heating (electric field) govern the design of ThermalMR applicators. We hypothesize that helmet RF applicators (HPA) improve the efficacy of ThermalMR of brain tumors versus an annular phased RF array (APA). An HPA was designed using eight broadband self-grounded bow-tie (SGBT) antennae plus two SGBTs placed on top of the head. An APA of 10 equally spaced SGBTs was used as a reference. Electromagnetic field (EMF) simulations were performed for a test object (phantom) and a human head model. For a clinical scenario, the head model was modified with a tumor volume obtained from a patient with glioblastoma multiforme. To assess performance, we introduced multi-target evaluation (MTE) to ensure whole-brain slice accessibility. We implemented time multiplexed vector field shaping to optimize RF excitation. Our EMF and temperature simulations demonstrate that the HPA improves performance criteria critical to MRI and enhances targeted RF and temperature focusing versus the APA. Our findings are a foundation for the experimental implementation and application of a HPA en route to ThermalMR of brain tumors.

A Real-Time Adaptive Station Beamforming Strategy for Next Generation Phased Array Radio Telescopes.

The next generation phased array radio telescopes, such as the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) low frequency aperture array, suffer from RF interference (RFI) because of the large field of view of antenna element. The classical station beamformer used in SKA-low is resource efficient but cannot deal with the unknown sidelobe RFI. A real-time adaptive beamforming strategy is proposed for SKA-low station, which trades the capability of adaptive RFI nulling at an acceptably cost, it doesn't require hardware redesign but only modifies the firmware accordingly. The proposed strategy uses a Parallel Least Mean Square (PLMS) algorithm, which has a computational complexity of 4N+2 and can be performed in parallel. Beam pattern and output SINR simulation results show deeply nulling performance to sidelobe RFI, as well as good mainlobe response similar to the classical beamformer. The convergence performance depends on the signal-and-interference environments and step size, wherein too large a step size leads to a non-optimal output SINR and too small a step size leads to slow convergence speed. FPGA implementation demonstrations are implemented and tested on a NI FPGA module, and test results demonstrate good real-time performance and low slice resource consumption.

An efficient ultrasonic wavenumber-domain plane wave imaging method towards the inspection of curved structures.

Ultrasonic phased array testing is commonly employed for inspecting curved structures. Conventional plane wave imaging techniques, based on delay-and-sum in the time-domain, offer high image quality and inspection accuracy but suffer from low frame rates due to their high computational complexity. In this work, an efficient wavenumber-domain imaging method that combines non-stationary wavefield extrapolation and f-k migration is proposed for curved structure inspection. Special emission focal laws are designed to generate a sequence of steered plane waves through the curved interface. The raw data is then extrapolated to the top boundary of the region of interest, followed by f-k migration to reconstruct images with high time efficiency. Simulation and experimental evaluations demonstrate a time reduction by a factor of up to 32.24 compared to conventional time-domain plane wave image reconstruction with equivalent image quality, highlighting its potential for monitoring flaws in real-time.

Utilizing improved YOLOv8 based on SPD-BRSA-AFPN for ultrasonic phased array non-destructive testing.

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a technique for inspecting materials and their defects without causing damage to the tested components. Phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT) has emerged as a hot topic in industrial NDT applications. Currently, the collection of ultrasound data is mostly automated, while the analysis of the data is still predominantly carried out manually. Manual analysis of scan image defects is inefficient and prone to instability, prompting the need for computer-based solutions. Deep learning-based object detection methods have shown promise in addressing such challenges recently. This approach typically demands a substantial amount of high-resolution, well-annotated training data, which is challenging to obtain in NDT. Consequently, it becomes difficult to detect low-resolution images and defects with varying positional sizes. This work proposes improvements based on the state-of-the-art YOLOv8 algorithm to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of defect detection in phased-array ultrasonic testing. The space-to-depth convolution (SPD-Conv) is imported to replace strided convolution, mitigating information loss during convolution operations and improving detection performance on low-resolution images. Additionally, this paper constructs and incorporates the bi-level routing and spatial attention module (BRSA) into the backbone, generating multiscale feature maps with richer details. In the neck section, the original structure is replaced by the asymptotic feature pyramid network (AFPN) to reduce model parameters and computational complexity. After testing on public datasets, in comparison to YOLOv8 (the baseline), this algorithm achieves high-quality detection of flat bottom holes (FBH) and aluminium blocks on the simulated dataset. More importantly, for the challenging-to-detect defect side-drilled holes (SDH), it achieves F1 scores (weighted average of precision and recall) of 82.50% and intersection over union (IOU) of 65.96%, representing an improvement of 17.56% and 0.43%. On the experimental dataset, the F1 score and IOU for FBH reach 75.68% (an increase of 9.01%) and 83.79%, respectively. Simultaneously, the proposed algorithm demonstrates robust performance in the presence of external noise, while maintaining exceptionally high computational efficiency and inference speed. These experimental results validate the high detection performance of the proposed intelligent defect detection algorithm for ultrasonic images, which contributes to the advancement of the smart industry.

A Wide-Band Low-Profile Antenna for a High-Integration Phased Array System.

In this paper, a wide-band, low-profile antenna is presented for a high-integration phased array system. The proposed antenna, implemented using a tightly coupled array, operates over roughly the X-K frequency band and is performant at 8 GHz-18.5 GHz. The antenna can scan to ±60 degrees in both the E- and H-planes. Compared to previous tightly coupled antennas with smaller element spacing, the antenna in this paper reaches 9.4 mm, which corresponds to 0.58 λ of high frequency, suitable for engineering application conditions in production. The antenna can be soldered to BGA T/R chips in this space. Additionally, to facilitate flexible assembly for large arrays, the antenna is manufactured modularly using four elements and its parasitic radiation is analyzed. Then, a method for repressing parasitic radiation is presented. Finally, the antenna is fabricated and measured in a microwave chamber, exhibiting an excellent pattern and scanning radiation. The measured performance agrees with the full-wave finite array simulations.

A Circularly Polarized Non-Resonant Slotted Waveguide Antenna Array for Wide-Angle Scanning.

A compact circularly polarized non-resonant slotted waveguide antenna array is proposed with the aim of achieving wide-angle scanning, circular polarization, and low side-lobe levels. The designed antenna demonstrates a scanning range of +11° to +13° in the frequency domain and a beam scanning range of -45° to +45° in the phase domain. This design exhibits significant advantages for low-cost two-dimensional electronic scanning circularly polarized arrays. It employs a compact element that reduces the aperture area by 50% compared to traditional circular polarization cavities. Additionally, the staggered array method is employed to achieve an element spacing of 0.57λ within the azimuth plane. Isolation gaps were introduced into the array to enhance the circular polarization performance of non-resonant arrays. The Taylor synthesis method was employed to reduce the side-lobe levels. A prototype was designed, fabricated, and measured. The results indicate superior radiation efficiency, favorable VSWR levels, and an axis ratio maintenance below 3 dB across the scanning range. The proposed antenna and methodology effectively broaden the beam scanning angle of circularly polarized slotted waveguide array antennas.

A birdcage transmit, 24-channel conformal receive array coil for sensitive 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging of the human brain at 7 T.

Phosphorus (31P) magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (MRSI) can serve as a critical tool for more direct quantification of brain energy metabolism, tissue pH, and cell membrane turnover. However, the low concentration of 31P metabolites in biological tissue may result in low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in 31P MRS images. In this work, we present an innovative design and construction of a 31P radiofrequency coil for whole-brain MRSI at 7 T. Our coil builds on current literature in ultra-high field 31P coil design and offers complete coverage of the brain, including the cerebellum and brainstem. The coil consists of an actively detunable volume transmit (Tx) resonator and a custom 24-channel receive (Rx) array. The volume Tx resonator is a 16-rung high-pass birdcage coil. The Rx coil consists of a 24-element phased array composed of catered loop shapes and sizes built onto a custom, close-fitting, head-shaped housing. The Rx array was designed to provide complete coverage of the head, while minimizing mutual coupling. The Rx configuration had a mean S 11 $$ {S}_{11} $$ reflection coefficient better than -20 decibels (dB) when the coil was loaded with a human head. The mean mutual coupling ( S 21 $$ {S}_{21} $$ ) among Rx elements, when loaded with a human head, was -16 dB. In phantom imaging, the phased array produced a central SNR that was 4.4-fold higher than the corresponding central SNR when operating the 31P birdcage as a transceiver. The peripheral SNR was 12-fold higher when applying the optimized phased array. In vivo 3D 31P MRSI experiments produced high-quality spectra in the cerebrum gray and white matter, as well as in the cerebellum. Characteristic phosphorus metabolites related to adenosine triphosphate metabolism and cell membrane turnover were distinguishable across all brain regions. In summary, our results demonstrate the potential of our novel coil for accurate, whole-brain 31P metabolite quantification.

Automatic flaw detection in sectoral scans using machine learning.

Phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT) requires highly trained and qualified personnel to interpret and analyze images. It takes a solid understanding of wave propagation physics to comprehend the generated images. As such, the inspector's judgment and level of experience have a significant impact on the analysis's outcome. In addition, the procedure is prone to error and laborious. AI had shown to be effective in computer vision in a variety of classification and detection tasks. Regarding PAUT, studies have also demonstrated that machine learning may be able to identify defects with a level of accuracy that is on par or even superior to that of trained and qualified inspectors. Nonetheless, the use of computer vision in PAUT remains very limited. The primary cause of this is the challenge accessing large databases of labelled inspections. In fact, a considerable amount of training data is required for machine learning. While it is easy to access sizeable, labelled databases of MRI scans or photographs for instance, that is not the case in PAUT because inspection results are usually confidential. In this project, a large database was generated using mock-ups commonly used to train and evaluate inspectors. The different defects contained in these mock-ups were used to train a machine learning model. The data was acquired with several different probes centered at different frequencies. Each acquisition was performed using Full Matrix Capture (FMC). The post-processing of the data contained in the FMC allows to compute any sectoral scan from its focal laws. As a result, a comprehensive database composed of hundreds of thousands of sectoral scans was generated from these few FMC acquisitions. The completeness of this database facilitated robust training of a defect detection model for PAUT sectoral scans. The evaluation of the model demonstrated its ability to generalize even to defect types it had never been trained on. Furthermore, the detection performance remained consistent even in high noise conditions where the Contrast-to-Noise Ratio (CNR) was very low.

Integrated optical phased array with on-chip amplification enabling programmable beam shaping.

We present an integrated optical phased array (OPA) which embeds in-line optical amplifiers and phase modulators to provide beam-forming capability with gain and beam steering in the 1465-1590 nm wavelength range. We demonstrate up to 21.5 dB net on-chip gain and up to 35.5 mW optical output power. The OPA circuit is based on an InP photonic integration platform and features the highest measured on-chip gain and output power level recorded in an active OPA (i.e., with amplification), to the best of our knowledge. Furthermore, the OPA enables the independent control of both amplitude and phase in its arms and through this we demonstrate programmable beam shaping for two cases. First, we carried out a Gaussian apodization of the power distribution profile in the OPA emitter waveguides, leading to 19.8 dB sidelobe suppression in the far-field beam, which is the highest value recorded for active OPAs, and then we demonstrated beam forming of 0th, 1st, and 2nd order 1D Hermite-Gaussian beams in free-space.

Damage Detection in FRP-Reinforced Concrete Elements.

Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional steel reinforcements in concrete structures owing to their benefits of corrosion resistance, higher strength-to-weight ratio, reduced maintenance cost, extended service life, and superior durability. However, there has been limited research on non-destructive testing (NDT) methods applicable for identifying damage in FRP-reinforced concrete (FRP-RC) elements. This knowledge gap has often limited its application in the construction industry. Engineers and owners often lack confidence in utilizing this relatively new construction material due to the challenge of assessing its condition. Thus, the main objective of this study is to determine the applicability of two of the most common NDT methods: the Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) and Phased Array Ultrasonic (PAU) methods for the detection of damage in FRP-RC elements. Three slab specimens with variations in FRP type (glass-, carbon- and basalt-FRP, i.e., GFRP, CFRP, and BFRP, respectively), bar diameter, bar depths, and defect types were investigated to determine the limitations and detection capabilities of these two NDT methods. The results show that GPR could detect damage in GFRP bars and CFRP strands, but PAU was limited to damage detection in CFRP strands. The findings of this study show the applicability of conventional NDT methods to FRP-RC and at the same time identify the areas with a need for further research.

Phased Array Ultrasonic Method for Robotic Preload Measurement in Offshore Wind Turbine Bolted Connections.

This paper presents a novel approach for preload measurement of bolted connections, specifically tailored for offshore wind applications. The proposed method combines robotics, Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT), nonlinear acoustoelasticity, and Finite Element Analysis (FEA). Acceptable defects, below a pre-defined size, are shown to have an impact on preload measurement, and therefore conducting simultaneous defect detection and preload measurement is discussed in this paper. The study demonstrates that even slight changes in the orientation of the ultrasonic transducer, the non-automated approach, can introduce a significant error of up to 140 MPa in bolt stress measurement and therefore a robotic approach is employed to achieve consistent and accurate measurements. Additionally, the study emphasises the significance of considering average preload for comparison with ultrasonic data, which is achieved through FEA simulations. The advantages of the proposed robotic PAUT method over single-element approaches are discussed, including the incorporation of nonlinearity, simultaneous defect detection and stress measurement, hardware and software adaptability, and notably, a substantial improvement in measurement accuracy. Based on the findings, the paper strongly recommends the adoption of the robotic PAUT approach for preload measurement, whilst acknowledging the required investment in hardware, software, and skilled personnel.

Beam Steering Technology of Optical Phased Array Based on Silicon Photonic Integrated Chip.

Light detection and ranging (LiDAR) is widely used in scenarios such as autonomous driving, imaging, remote sensing surveying, and space communication due to its advantages of high ranging accuracy and large scanning angle. Optical phased array (OPA) has been studied as an important solution for achieving all-solid-state scanning. In this work, the recent research progress in improving the beam steering performance of the OPA based on silicon photonic integrated chips was reviewed. An optimization scheme for aperiodic OPA is proposed.

A 5G NR FR2 Beamforming System with Integrated Transceiver Module.

This paper presents a 5G new radio (NR) FR2 beamforming system with an integrated transceiver module. A real-time operating module providing enhanced flexibility and capability has been proposed. The integrated RF beamforming system with an integrated transceiver module can be operated in 8Tx-8Rx mode configuration simultaneously. A series-fed structure 8 × 7 microstrip antenna array for compact size and improved directivity is employed in the RF beamforming module. The RF beamforming module incorporates a custom 28 GHz, eight-channel fully differential beamforming IC (BFIC). An eight-channel BFIC in a phased-array beamforming system offers advantages in terms of increased antenna density and improved beam steering precision. The RF beamforming module is integrated with an RF transceiver module that enables the simultaneous up-conversion and down-conversion of the baseband signal. The RF transmitter module consists of a transmitter, a receiver, a signal generator, a power supply, and a control unit. The RF beamforming system can scan horizontally from -50° to +50° with a step of 10°. To achieve an optimized beam pattern, a calibration was conducted. The transmit and receive conversion gain of around 20 dB is achieved with the transceiver module. To verify the communication performance of the manufactured integrated RF beamforming system, a real-time wireless video transmission/reception test was performed at a frequency of 28 GHz, and the video file was transmitted smoothly in real time without interruption within a range of ±50°.

Dual-Polarized Metal Vivaldi Array Using Independent Structural Elements.

In this letter, a dual-polarized metal Vivaldi phased array antenna composed of independent structural elements is proposed, covering 6-18 GHz. By designing Vivaldi elements with a flexible and complementary structure, arrays of arbitrary shapes and scales can be constructed. The resonance caused by structural discontinuity is critically studied and eliminated to ensure good performance across the entire band. The antenna elements are fed by 50-Ohm SSMP connectors and manufactured from 2A12 aluminum alloy. An array prototype consisting of 8 × 8 dual-polarized metal has been fabricated and tested with active transmit/receive (T/R) modules to demonstrate the design concept. The array exhibits excellent beam-scanning characteristics in both the E-plane and H-plane, within the scanning range without grating lobes, which shows good agreement with the simulated results. The measured gain results are within the range of 15.2 to 24.8 dBi, and the aperture efficiencies are greater than 91% in the entire operating band. The wideband antenna technology involved in this study can effectively help increase the capacity of communication systems and meets the intentions of the Special Issue.

Transmit Beamforming Design Based on Multi-Receiver Power Suppression for STAR Digital Array.

The simultaneous transmit and receive (STAR) array system provides higher radiation gain and data rate compared to traditional radio system. Because of the various mutual couplings between each pair of transmit and receive elements, it is a great challenge to suppress the incident self-interference power at multiple receive elements, which is usually much higher than the desired signal of interest (SoI) power and causes the saturation of receive links and the distortion of the digital SoI. In this paper, we propose an optimized method for transmit beamforming based on radiation power constraints and transmit power control. Through adaptive transmit beamforming, high isolation between the transmit array and each receive link is achieved, minimizing the self-interference power at each receiving element. This method effectively reduces the self-interference power, avoiding distortion of the SoI digital signal caused by limited-bit analog-to-digital converters (ADCs). Simulation results demonstrate that this optimized transmit beamforming method can achieve more than 100 dB effective isotropic isolation (EII) on a 32-element two-dimensional phased array designed in HFSS, reducing the maximum incident self-interference power at the receive channels by approximately 35 dB, while effectively controlling the attenuation of the transmit gain. We also present the advantages in receive subarray isolation and lower ADCs digits under the transmit ABF method.

A Novel Compact Broadband Quasi-Twisted Branch Line Coupler Based on a Double-Layered Microstrip Line.

A novel quasi-twisted miniaturized wideband branch line coupler (BLC) is proposed. The design is based on bisecting the conventional microstrip line BLC transversely and folding bisected sections on double-layered substrates with a common ground plane in between. The input and output terminals, each with a length of λg/4, and the pair of quarter-wavelength horizontal parallel arms are converted into a Z-shaped meandered microstrip line in the designed structure. Conversely, the pair of quarter-wavelength vertical arms are halved into two lines and transformed into a periodically loaded slow-wave structure. The bisected parts of the BLC are placed on the opposite side of the doubled-layer substrate and connected through four vias passing through the common ground plane. This technique enabled a compact BLC size of 6.4 × 18 mm2, which corresponds to a surface area miniaturization by ~50% as compared to the classical BLC size of 10 × 23 mm2 at 6 GHz. Moreover, the attained relative bandwidth is 73.9% (4.6-10 GHz) for S11, S33, S21, and the phase difference between outputs (∠S21 - ∠S41). However, if a coupling parameter (S41) of up to -7.5 dB is considered, then the relative bandwidth reduces to 53.9% (4.6-10 GHz) for port 1 as the input. Similarly, for port 3 as the input, the obtained bandwidth is 75.8% (4.5-10 GHz) for S33, S11, S43, and the phase difference between outputs (∠S43 - ∠S23). Likewise, this bandwidth reduces to 56% (4.5-8 GHz) when a coupling parameter (S23) of up to -7.5 dB is considered. In contrast, the relative bandwidth for the ordinary BLC is 41% at the same resonant frequency. The circuit is constructed on a double-layered low-cost FR4 substrate with a relative permittivity of 4.3 and a loss tangent of 0.025. An isolation of -13 dB was realized in both S13 and S31 demonstrating an excellent performance. The transmission coefficients between input/output ports S21, S41, S23, and S43 are between -3.1 dB to -3.5 dB at a frequency of 6 GHz. Finally, the proposed BLC provides phase differences between output ports of 90.5° and 94.8° at a frequency of 6 GHz when the input ports 1 and 3 are excited, respectively. The presented design offers the potential of being utilized as a unit cell for building a Butler matrix (BM) for sub-6 GHz 5G beamforming networks.

A direct wavepath-based element localization algorithm to enable flexible ultrasound array imaging.

An algorithm is developed for determining the element locations of a flexible ultrasonic array when applied to a surface of unknown geometry. The algorithm forms a dataset of traveltimes from the direct wavepaths (i.e. rays) between transmitters and receivers, which serves as the input to an optimization scheme that iterates on the array element locations until an objective function is minimized. Once, the relative array locations have been determined, they are used as an input to a phased array ultrasound imaging algorithm. In this study, the total focusing method with full matrix capture is used as a testbed code to demonstrate the benefits of the relative array element localization algorithm. The algorithm is verified by simulation and experimentation.

Surface breaking crack sizing method using pulse-echo Rayleigh waves.

Surface cracks are common in various industries. Eddy current testing (ECT) is commonly used for crack sizing but necessitates complex calibration standards and a highly trained inspector. Moreover, for large-area inspections, it requires additional scanning arrangements. In recent years the wedge technique-based Rayleigh wave crack sizing method has attracted significant research interest due to its unidirectional excitability. However, Rayleigh wave features generated at crack tips are often weak and masked under noise, and they mostly attenuate before reaching the receiving probe due to the couplant between the wedge-test specimen interface. Consequently, sizing the crack depth is difficult using a pulse-echo setup. This work presents a wedge-free pulse-echo Rayleigh wave method for surface crack sizing using a conventional phased array transducer. Eliminating the wedge removes a couplant layer leading to lower attenuation, enabling the transducer to capture crack tip features. This allows the sizing of surface cracks in pulse-echo using the time-of-flight (ToF) information. Furthermore, leveraging the phased array system, an averaging technique employed to the time trace signals captured by the transducer elements effectively averages out the other wave modes generated at crack geometries by the scattering of Rayleigh waves. This significantly minimizes sizing errors and enhances the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The performance of the proposed method is demonstrated through finite element simulations and experiments. Experiments with electric discharged machined (EDM) notches on test specimen surface at various angles and depths mimicking surface-breaking cracks show accurate sizing within a 5% error. The proposed method offers flexibility in performing inspections using a wide frequency range and can be easily applied to different materials using any conventional phased array transducer. This enhances its adaptability for industrial applications in the characterization of surface cracks.