Longitudinal relationship between adolescent emotional self-regulation and prosocial behavior toward powerful people: Disentangling between-person differences from within-person effects.

INTRODUCTION: This study investigated the longitudinal effects between adolescent emotional self-regulation and prosocial behavior toward powerful people (i.e., actions aimed at benefiting or supporting individuals who hold significant influence or authority within a group or society), based on the perspective of positive socialization cycle. METHODS: We recruited 543 Chinese adolescents (284 girls, M age at Time 1 = 11.27 years) and collected three waves of data over 3 years, each approximately 1 year apart (n Time 2 = 449, n Time 3 = 417). Traditional cross-lagged panel model was conducted to test the longitudinal relationship between emotional self-regulation and prosocial behavior toward powerful people. Then, a random-intercept cross-lagged panel model was performed to disentangle the between-person differences from the within-person predictive processes. RESULTS: The results showed that, emotional self-regulation in the previous year was positively associated with prosocial behavior toward powerful people in the next year, whereas earlier prosocial behavior toward powerful people was not predictive of subsequent emotional self-regulation. CONCLUSIONS: Findings advocate the domain-specific nature of self-regulation and prosocial behavior and deepen our understanding of the relationship between the two from the culture-specific perspective. This study also highlights the value of emotional self-regulation intervention as a viable way to promote adolescent prosocial development. Theoretical and empirical implications are discussed.

Delay discounting in adolescence depends on whom you wait for: Evidence from a functional neuroimaging study.

With age, adolescents increasingly demonstrate the ability to forgo immediate, smaller rewards in favor of larger delayed rewards, indicating reduced delay discounting. Adolescence is also a time of social reorientation, where decisions not only involve weighing immediate against future outcomes, but also consequences for self versus those for others. In this functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging study, we examined the neural correlates of immediate and delayed reward choices where the delayed outcomes could benefit self, friends, or unknown others. A total of 196 adolescent twins aged 14-17 completed a social delay discounting task, with fMRI data acquired from 174 participants. Out of these, 156 adolescents had valid fMRI data, and 138 adolescents had observations in every condition. Adolescents more often chose the immediate reward when it was larger, and when the delay was longer. Area-under-the-curve (AUC) comparisons revealed that behavior differed across delay-beneficiaries, with AUC being highest for the self, followed by friends, and lowest for unknown others. This suggests that adolescents are more willing to wait for rewards for self. Neuroimaging analyses showed increased activity in the midline areas medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) and precuneus, as well as bilateral temporal parietal junction (TPJ) when considering delayed reward for unknown others and friends compared to self. A whole-brain interaction with choice showed that the bilateral insula and right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) were more active for delayed choices for unknown others and for immediate choices for friends and self. This underscores that the neuro-cognitive processing of how delays reduce the value of rewards depends on closeness of the beneficiary.

Unravelling self-regulation in early childhood: protocol for the longitudinal SPROUTS study.

BACKGROUND: Enough is known about self-regulation to establish it as a priority target for education and intervention efforts beginning in early childhood, yet not enough to meaningfully and reliably alter developmental trajectories. Rather than resigning our aspirations, we need more nuanced and integrative understanding of self-regulation abilities and change. METHODS: Launching in 2024, SPROUTS is a 3-year longitudinal study of early self-regulation, beginning in the pre-school period (3-5 years old at Wave 1) with retrospective data back to birth and annual data collection across the transition to school period (ages 5-7 years at Wave 3). Data will be collected on children's self-regulation, related abilities, outcomes, as well as prior and current contexts. One nested study within each Wave-that contributes complementary insights via supplementary and in-depth methods and data-will enable further exploration of contemporary issues related to self-regulation. DISCUSSION: Insights generated can potentiate more effective intervention and education efforts by: improving intervention cost-benefit ratios; identifying likely mechanisms of change; easing burdens of unhealthy and antisocial behaviours associated with low self-regulation; and, most importantly, contributing to giving children the best early start to life. These benefits are timely in the context of intense policy and educational interest in fostering children's self-regulation. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Open Science Framework: osf.io/maqdg. Date of registration: 26 Sep 2024.

Social Media Use in Adolescents: Bans, Benefits, and Emotion Regulation Behaviors.

Unlabelled: Social media is an integral part of adolescents' daily lives, but the significant time they invest in social media has raised concerns about the effect on their mental health. Bans and severe restrictions on social media use are quickly emerging as an attempt to regulate social media use; however, evidence supporting their effectiveness is limited. Adolescents experience several benefits from social media, including increased social connection, reduced loneliness, and a safe space for marginalized groups (eg, LGBTQ+) to interact. Rather than enforcing bans and severe restrictions, emotion regulation should be leveraged to help adolescents navigate the digital social environment. This viewpoint paper proposes a nuanced approach toward regulating adolescent social media use by (1) discontinuing the use of ineffective bans, (2) recognizing the benefits social media use can have, and (3) fostering emotion regulation skills in adolescents to encourage the development of self-regulation.

Clarifying the importance and moderating roles of temporal self-regulation theory across behaviour types.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to explore the utility of temporal self-regulation theory across four behaviours differing in complexity and approach or avoidance nature. Specifically, we explored if intention, habit, cues, self-regulation (disorganisation, coping planning, task switching, present orientation, sensation seeking, automaticity, planning and distractibility) and interactions between constructs could account for variance in fruit consumption, unhealthy snacking, walking and recycling. METHODS AND MEASURES: Two hundred and fifty-four participants completed a two-part online survey measuring theory constructs at time one and behaviours at time two. Data was analysed using hierarchical multiple regression and binary logistic regression analyses. RESULTS: Findings partially support the theory with differential importance of constructs across behaviours. Intention, habit, sensation seeking and automaticity significantly predicted fruit consumption. Intention and cues significantly predicted unhealthy snacking. There were no significant predictors of walking. Habit, present orientation, sensation seeking, and interactions between intention and sensation seeking, and intention and planning significantly predicted recycling. CONCLUSION: Findings may help develop future frameworks to guide research and tailored interventions using the theory according to behaviour type. Behavioural pathways suggested in the theory may be reconsidered, or other constructs could be included as extensions of the model to improve the theory's utility.

Increased self-regulation of eating behavior is associated with reduced generalized anxiety disorder in Saudi Arabia.

Introduction: There is a growing body of evidence suggesting that self-regulation of eating behavior (SREB) is closely linked to dietary habits and mental health. However, little is known about these relationships within the Saudi Arabian population. This study aimed to address this gap. Methods: A digital cross-sectional study was conducted utilizing the SREB and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD-7) questionnaires, along with a brief survey about dietary habits. Linear and logistic regression analyses were employed to examine these associations, with a total of 651 Saudi participants enrolled in the study. Results: The results showed that only 15.5% of participants demonstrated a high capacity for SREB, while 65% experienced moderate or severe symptoms of GAD. Greater SREB was significantly associated with reduced GAD scores (ß = -0.13, 95% CI; -0.12 to -0.03; p < 0.001) and lower BMI (ß = -0.10, 95% CI; 0.08 to -0.00; p = 0.01). Additionally, predictive factors for high capacity for SREB included higher daily intake of fruits (OR = 2.90, 95% CI; 1.44 to 5.84; p = 0.003) and regular breakfast consumption (OR = 1.64, 95% CI; 1.01 to 2.63; p = 0.04). Discussion: These findings suggest that enhancing SREB may be a promising strategy for obesity prevention and improving mental health outcomes among the Saudi population. Implementing interventions aimed at promoting healthier dietary habits could support the physical and mental well-being of this population.

The mediating role of intentional self-regulation in the constructive and pathological compensation processes of problematic social networking use.

Perceived social isolation is a key predictor of college students' problematic social networking site use (PSNSU). According to the Fear-Driven/Compensation-Seeking Hypothesis, reducing the fear of social isolation and compensating for social deficits serve as negative reinforcement motivations for SNS use, which may potentially result in PSNSU. This study investigated the association between perceived social isolation and PSNSU through the mediating roles of intentional self-regulation and parasocial relationships from a compensatory perspective. Additionally, gender differences in the mediating model were examined. Findings from an online survey of 893 college students in China revealed a positive relationship between perceived social isolation and PSNSU. The serial mediation model showed that intentional self-regulation and parasocial relationships both had positive individual mediating effects, as well as a negative serial mediating effect. Moreover, these mediating effects were only significant among women. The findings suggest that in the association between perceived social isolation and PSNSU, the mediating role of intentional self-regulation forms a constructive compensatory process, while its serial mediating role through parasocial relationships forms a pathological compensatory process. Interventions for PSNSU should take the mediating role of intentional self-regulation in constructive compensation process and the gender difference into consideration.

The association of multi-system conditions on mental health trajectories during naval deployment.

This study seeks to enhance understanding of mental health trajectories across Navy deployments and the predictors of those trajectories by exploring a range of job design and individual-level factors. Personnel from the Royal Australian Navy were surveyed on pre-deployment, mid-deployment, and post-deployment. At pre-deployment, there were 559 (Mage = 30.19; male = 75.5%) survey responses, N = 112 survey responses could be linked at all time points (retention rate of 20.04% across all time points), and 314 personnel (56.2%) responded at least twice. Latent class growth analyses and growth mixture models were used to determine the trajectories that best fit the data. Separate models were developed for each of the mental health outcomes studied (i.e. psychological distress, perceived resilience, and perceived stress), plus a latent outcome representing a summary measure of psychological ill-health. This latent outcome, estimated as the most comprehensive assessment approach, was used to evaluate all 33 predictors. Consistent with previous work, we identified between two and four trajectories reflecting resilient/low symptom trajectories and heterogeneous symptom trajectories. There were a greater proportion of personnel in the heterogeneous symptom trajectories than identified in previous research. A key contribution of this work is the thorough comparison and ranking of factors that influence the deployment experience. We emphasize the importance of role demands and resources in determining these trajectories when compared directly to self-regulation strategies. Study findings highlight important implications for job design for military personnel during deployment and underscore the importance of adopting a holistic system approach to well-being.

Semantic fMRI neurofeedback of emotions: from basic principles to clinical applications.

During fMRI neurofeedback participants learn to self-regulate activity in relevant brain areas and networks based on ongoing feedback extracted from measured responses in those regions. This closed-loop approach has been successfully applied to reduce symptoms in mood disorders such as depression by showing participants a thermometer-like display indicating the strength of activity in emotion-related brain areas. The hitherto employed conventional neurofeedback is, however, 'blind' with respect to emotional content, i.e. patients instructed to engage in a specific positive emotion could drive the neurofeedback signal by engaging in a different (positive or negative) emotion. In this future perspective, we present a new form of neurofeedback that displays semantic information of emotions to the participant. Semantic information is extracted online using real-time representational similarity analysis of emotion-specific activity patterns. The extracted semantic information can be provided to participants in a two-dimensional semantic map depicting the current mental state as a point reflecting its distance to pre-measured emotional mental states (e.g. 'happy', 'content', 'sad', 'angry'). This new approach provides transparent feedback during self-regulation training, and it has the potential to enable more specific training effects for future therapeutic applications such as clinical interventions in mood disorders.This article is part of the theme issue 'Neurofeedback: new territories and neurocognitive mechanisms of endogenous neuromodulation'.

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms and bullying victimization from childhood to adolescence - A within-person cross-lagged approach.

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and subclinical symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattentiveness coincide with an increased risk of peer victimization. What remains unclear are the developmental dynamics of these associations. In a sample drawn from two Norwegian birth cohorts (n = 872; 49.94 % girls), assessed biennially from age 6 to age 14, reciprocal relations between ADHD symptoms and victimization were examined while controlling for symptoms of anxiety and depression. ADHD symptoms were assessed through clinical interviews with parents, whereas victimization was reported by teachers using questionnaires. Random-intercept cross-lagged panel modeling revealed a consistent reciprocal within-person effect of increased ADHD symptoms on victimization, and vice versa. Analyses of subdimensions of ADHD projected a consistent cross-lagged bidirectional relationship between victimization and inattentiveness symptoms only, whereas no such reciprocity was found for hyperactivity-impulsivity symptoms. Results did not differ by gender. Findings suggest that the social context may constitute a vulnerability factor in the etiology of the inattentive subtype of ADHD, and at the same time, that inattentiveness symptoms pose a risk for becoming victimized.

Profiles of self-regulation and their association with behavior problems among sexually abused children.

This study aimed to delineate profiles of self-regulation among sexually abused children and their association with behavior problems using a person-centered approach. A sample of 223 children aged six to 12, their parents, and teachers were recruited in specialized intervention centers. Latent profile analysis revealed four profiles: (1) Dysregulated, (2) Inhibited, (3) Flexibly Regulated, and (4) Parent Perceived Self-Regulation. Children from the Flexibly Regulated profile showed relatively low behavior problems, and those from the Dysregulated profile were characterized by high behavior problems. Children from the Parent Perceived Self-Regulation profile showed overall good adaptation, although teachers reported higher behavior problems than parents. Children from the Inhibited profile, characterized by the highest level of inhibition but low parent-rated emotion regulation competencies and executive functions, showed the highest level of internalizing behavior problems, indicating that high inhibition does not necessarily translate to better adaptation. Results also show a moderation effect of sex. Being assigned to the Inhibited profile was associated with decreased externalizing behaviors in boys and increased internalizing behaviors in girls. This study underscores the complexity of self-regulation in sexually abused children and supports the need to adopt a multi-method and multi-informant approach when assessing these children.

The Role of Intention, Behavioral Regulation, and Physical Activity Behavior in the Prediction of Physical Activity Identity across Time.

Physical activity identity represents an important determinant of sustained physical activity behavior. The purpose of this investigation was to examine whether intention, behavioral regulation, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) behavior explain significant variation in physical activity identity across time. Using a repeated measures observational design, lower-active adults new or returning to physical activity participation (N = 66) completed measures of study variables every three weeks over the course of a nine-week period (four assessments total). Based on the results of mixed-effects regression modelling, there was a small, non-significant increase in physical activity identity across time (b = 0.07, p = 0.13). Intention, MVPA, and behavioral regulation mostly had significant (ps < 0.05) bivariate correlations with physical activity identity at the same time point of assessment. Behavioral regulation explained significant variation in physical activity identity across time (b = 0.26, p < 0.0001), but intention and MVPA were non-significant (ps > 0.05) after including a random intercept and controlling for behavioral regulation. Identity was resistant to change among new physical activity initiates in this study and longer time frames of assessment are needed (e.g., six months). Behavioral regulation should be examined as a determinant of physical activity identity in future investigations.

Online self-evaluation of fMRI-based neurofeedback performance.

This study explores the subjective evaluation of supplementary motor area (SMA) regulation performance in a real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging neurofeedback (fMRI-NF) task. In fMRI-NF, people learn how to self-regulate their brain activity by performing mental actions to achieve a certain target level (TL) of blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) activation. Here, we studied two types of self-evaluation: performance predictions and perceived confidence in the prediction judgement. Participants completed three sessions of SMA regulation in a 7 T fMRI scanner, performing a mental drawing task. During each trial, they modulated their imagery strategy to achieve one of two different levels of SMA activation and reported a performance prediction and their confidence in the prediction before receiving delayed BOLD-activation feedback. Results show that participants' performance predictions improved with learning throughout the three sessions, and that these improvements were not driven exclusively by their knowledge of previous performance. Confidence reports on the other hand showed no change throughout training and did not correlate with better and worse predictions. In addition to shedding light on mechanisms of internal self-evaluation during neurofeedback training, these results also point to a dissociation between predictions of performance and confidence reports in the presence of feedback. This article is part of the theme issue 'Neurofeedback: new territories and neurocognitive mechanisms of endogenous neuromodulation'.

The Creative Awareness Theory: A Grounded Theory Study of Inherent Self-Regulation in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to determine why and how adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) experience variable impairment and identify the processes and strategies adults with ADHD use to develop positive self-regulation skills. Methods: A mixed cohort of 11 participants (6 female and 5 male) from a university, an adult ADHD clinic and an ADHD support group in the UK were interviewed online between September 2021 and February 2022. Data were collected and analysed simultaneously, inspired by a constructivist grounded theory methodology. Results: Participants described a "polar awareness of difference" from others in terms of engagement and ADHD characteristics, and a "polar awareness of consciousness" experienced as the states of chaotic attention and hyperfocus, both of which impact core perceptions of self. Using an infinity paradigm, the results demonstrate unskilled attempts to self-regulate within and between these states using self-absorption or self-transcendence strategies, including their inherent challenges and energetic cost. Our results further indicate that at the centre of this dynamic paradigm, creative awareness strategies exist, which exemplify polarity awareness and the regulation of that awareness supported by an authentic inner compass (AIC). Conclusions: This paper presents the empirical foundation for the ADHD Creative Awareness Theory (CAT)-a new theory for understanding the experience of ADHD consciousness and environmental engagement. Practical implications are explored, and recommendations include use of the CAT as a framework for understanding and development of inherent self-regulation skills for adults with ADHD.

Prevalence of Dunning-Kruger effect in first semester medical students: a correlational study of self-assessment and actual academic performance.

INTRODUCTION: The ability to self-assess is a crucial skill in identifying one's own strengths and weaknesses and in coordinating self-directed learning. The Dunning-Kruger effect occurs when limited knowledge causes individuals to overestimate their competence and underestimate others', leading to poor self-assessment and unrecognized incompetence. To serve as a foundation for developing strategies to improve self-assessment, the self-assessment abilities of first-semester students were assessed. METHODS: In the final weeks of the summer 2021, winter 2021/22, and summer 2022 semesters, the academic performance (oral anatomy exam) of first semester students was assessed (0-15 points). Before the exam results were announced, students were asked to self-assess their performance. RESULTS: Exam scores (M = 10.64, SD = 2.95) and self-assessed scores (M = 10.38, SD = 2.54) were comparable. The absolute difference between them, as a measure of self-assessment ability ranged from - 9 to + 9 points (M = -0.26, SD = 2.59). Among participants (N = 426), 18.5% assessed themselves accurately, 35.5% overestimated, and 46.0% underestimated their performance. The correlation between actual score and self-assessment was ρ = -0.590 (p < 0.001), reflecting the Dunning-Kruger effect. When separated by gender, correlation for females was ρ = -0.591 (p < 0.001), and for males ρ = -0.580 (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Realistic self-assessment is a challenge for first-semester students. The data indicate that females tend to overestimate their performance while males underestimate theirs. A pronounced Dunning-Kruger effect is evident in both genders, with significant negative correlations between self-assessment and actual performance. There are several reasons for the occurrence of the Dunning-Kruger effect. Considering that the COVID-19 pandemic influenced learning environments, collaborative learning was significantly restricted. The lack of opportunities for comparison could potentially lead to unrealistic self-assessment.

Zoom to the Virtual Room: The Shift to Remote Early Childhood Observational Assessments.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led prevention researchers to increasingly use remote observational procedures given social distancing directives associated with the pandemic. However, few studies have used remote observational procedures with children and their caregivers, with scant literature describing procedures with socioeconomically, racially, and ethnically diverse families. This manuscript describes processes to pivot to remote assessment of parent and child observations in the context of a longitudinal study examining the effects of a postpartum depression preventive intervention on responsive parenting and child self-regulation. We conducted remote assessments across three timepoints-42, 48, and 54 months-with 133 low-income and racially and ethnically diverse parent-child dyads. Details are provided on remote observation preparation and setup, as well as adaptation of observational assessments. Lessons learned are shared on the use of technology, scheduling considerations, parent's role as facilitator, maintaining child engagement, and cost considerations. We demonstrated excellent inter-rater reliability between independent coders on all assessments, suggesting the quality of remote assessments was conducive for analysis. Surveys with families completing a remote assessment found that most felt it was easy to participate in remote assessments and their child had a positive experience. Most parents preferred virtual visits if given an option for future assessments. Much prevention research utilizes observational measures that are less subject to bias. Our study demonstrated that research teams can effectively and reliably pivot to remote assessment with racially and ethnically diverse, low socioeconomic families, thereby providing guidance to other prevention researchers considering similar remote assessments with diverse samples.

Effect of Hit-Sport-Game Exercise Training on Self-Control and Regulation in Children With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

Objective. To determine the effect of a physical exercise training program, "HitSportGame" (HSG), on self-regulation of children with ADHD. Subjects and methods. The participants (N = 44) were children with ADHD aged 8 to 12 years (Mean 10.5 SD 1.4) without comorbidity with other neurodevelopmental disorders. Children were randomized to an experimental group and a wait-list control group. The experimental group participated in the Hit-Sport-Game (HSG) training program thrice a week for 12 weeks. The self-control skills of the participants in both groups were evaluated with the CACIA (Child and Adolescent Self-Control Questionnaire) 1 week before and 1 week after completing the entire intervention. Results. The results showed significant improvements with effect sizes from moderate to large in the scales of personal feedback (P = .003; η2 p = 0.183), criteria self-control (P = .029; η2 p = 0.112), and procedural self-control (P = .015; η2 p = 0.131) after the intervention in the experimental group compared to the control group, which showed no difference on any of these scales. The reward delay scale did not show significant changes associated with the intervention (P = .104; η2 p = 0.059). Conclusions. HitSportGame physical exercise training demonstrated favorable effects on some self-control skills such as personal feedback, criterial self-control and procedural self-control of children with ADHD. However, it did not show any effect on the ability to delay rewards in this population.

Econeurobiology and brain development in children: key factors affecting development, behavioral outcomes, and school interventions.

The Econeurobiology of the brain describes the environment in which an individual's brain develops. This paper explores the complex neural mechanisms that support and evaluate enrichment at various stages of development, providing an overview of how they contribute to plasticity and enhancement of both achievement and health. It explores the deep benefits of enrichment and contrasts them with the negative effects of trauma and stress on brain development. In addition, the paper strongly emphasizes the integration of Gardner's intelligence types into the school curriculum environment. It emphasizes the importance of linking various intelligence traits to educational strategies to ensure a holistic approach to cognitive development. In the field of Econeurobiology, this work explains the central role of the environment in shaping the development of the brain. It examines brain connections and plasticity and reveals the impact of certain environmental factors on brain development in early and mid-childhood. In particular, the six key factors highlighted are an environment of support, nutrition, physical activity, music, sleep, and cognitive strategies, highlighting their potential to improve cognitive abilities, memory, learning, self-regulation, and social and emotional development. This paper also investigates the social determinants of health and education in the context of Econeurobiology. It emphasizes the transformative power of education in society, especially in vulnerable communities facing global challenges in accessing quality education.

Evaluation of the Faecal Occult Blood Test as a Screening Tool for Periodontal Disease: A Case-Control Study.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the feasibility of using a faecal occult blood test (FOBT) kit as a screening tool for periodontal disease. Additionally, the study aimed to evaluate the test's sensitivity and specificity while exploring the influence of factors like age, sex and the number of teeth on its performance. METHODS: A prospective observational case-control study involving 150 participants divided into three groups on the basis of the basic periodontal examination index: healthy (n = 21), gingivitis (n = 52) and periodontitis (n = 77). Salivary occult blood tests were conducted using the Onsite FOB-Hi Rapid Test. Descriptive and analytical statistical analyses were performed using Fisher's exact test and chi-square tests. RESULTS: The FOBT kit demonstrated a sensitivity of 91% and a specificity of 100%. The number of teeth significantly influenced test results (p value = 0.021, chi-square). Age (p value = 0.09, chi-square) and sex (p value = 0.213, chi-square) did not significantly impact the test's performance. CONCLUSION: The FOBT kit demonstrates high sensitivity (91.3%) and specificity (100%) as a screening tool for periodontal disease. Its affordability and global availability make it suitable for detecting periodontal disease across different age groups, sexes and numbers of teeth.

Self-regulation and performance among elite youth soccer players: the role of approach-avoidance motivation.

Introduction and methods: This study aimed to investigate the motivational processes behind self-regulated learning and performance among 192 soccer players (82 girls) for three age groups (14-16 years old) eligible for the Norwegian national football team. A conditional process model was proposed and tested with achievement goals as mediators between achievement motives on the one hand and coach-reported performance and self-regulated learning on the other hand. The probability of success was examined as a potential moderator in the motivational process. Results: As predicted, motives to achieve success directly influenced planning and reflection/evaluation, whereas the influence of the success motive on regulation of effort was explained partly by task- and self-based approach goals. The motive to achieve success was, however, particularly crucial for maintaining these beneficial regulatory processes when the probability of success was found to be from moderate to low. Concerning the avoidance paths, the data supported only some of our original hypotheses. The motive to avoid failure predicted all three types of avoidance-based (task, self, and other) and other-based approach goals but did not contribute to explaining planning, reflection/evaluation, regulation of effort, or performance. There were no significant correlations between motivation variables and coach-reported performance. Moreover, girls were more motivated to avoid failure than boys, while both sexes achieved similar scores for football-specific self-regulated learning, probability of success, achievement goals, and motive to achieve success. Discussion: The results are discussed considering a hierarchical motivation model.