Exploring Sustainable Approaches for Electronic Textile Products and Prototypes.

This research investigated the sustainability of textile garments with integrated electronics and their potential impact on the environment. The electronic textiles (E-textiles) sector is booming, with many advancements in E-textile product designs and construction methods having been made in recent years. Although there is a rapidly increasing interest in the reusability and sustainability of textiles, work towards E-textile sustainability requires further attention. Vastly different components are combined when constructing an electronic textile product, which makes it challenging at the end of the life of these products to dispose of them in a responsible way. In this study, a teardown analysis was conducted using a structured method, which first mapped out the interactions between each component of the product with the environment, followed by using Kuusk's sustainable framework to analyze sustainable strategies. The research provides a unique contribution to transitioning sustainability theories into practical applications in the area of E-textiles, and the method proposed in this work can be employed in modifying electronics-embedded textiles to improve longevity and reduce the negative environmental impact. The work has highlighted key points of improvement that could be applied to a series of commercial E-textile garments, as well as a prototype E-textile device. Beyond this, the work provides a systematic approach for implementing new E-textile product designs that can evaluate overall product sustainability from the design stage to material selection, construction, and the planning of the commercial approaches of a product.

Recent Advances in Wearable Textile-Based Triboelectric Nanogenerators.

We review recent results on textile triboelectric nanogenerators (T-TENGs), which function both as harvesters of mechanical energy and self-powered motion sensors. T-TENGs can be flexible, breathable, and lightweight. With a combination of traditional and novel manufacturing methods, including nanofibers, T-TENGs can deliver promising power output. We review the evolution of T-TENG device structures based on various textile material configurations and fabrication methods, along with demonstrations of self-powered systems. We also provide a detailed analysis of different textile materials and approaches used to enhance output. Additionally, we discuss integration capabilities with supercapacitors and potential applications across various fields such as health monitoring, human activity monitoring, human-machine interaction applications, etc. This review concludes by addressing the challenges and key research questions that remain for developing viable T-TENG technology.

Design, application, and recycling of zinc alginate/guar gum hydrogel-based fibers.

Extreme cold events are quite common, highlighting the urgent need for flexible wearable electronic devices capable of diagnosing human health in low-temperature environments. Using a wet spinning strategy, we successfully developed sodium zinc alginate/guar gum(SZA/GG) hydrogel fibers with excellent environmental resistance, antimicrobial properties, and electrical conductivity. Building on this, we developed a flexible wearable sensing device that operates stably at low temperatures and exhibits a sensitivity of 0.585 within the range of -20 °C to -40 °C, demonstrating excellent response performance. When evaluating the physical state of outdoor athletes, the amplitude and fluctuation range of electrical resistance provide valuable information about the monitored environment and the risk of frostbite for the individual. However, like any device, it eventually reaches its usage limit. To address the issue of recycling hydrogel fiber waste, we propose recycling and carbonizing the discarded devices to use as a biomass carbon source for fabricating button-type supercapacitors. After 10,000 charge-discharge cycles, the capacitance retention rate reached 92.53 %, demonstrating the potential of these supercapacitors and offering a new approach to reducing resource waste.

Straightforward Production Methods for Diverse Porous PEDOT:PSS Structures and Their Characterization.

Porous conductive polymer structures, in particular Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) structures, are gaining in importance due to their versatile fields of application as sensors, hydrogels, or supercapacitors, to name just a few. Moreover, (porous) conducting polymers have become of interest for wearable and smart textile applications due to their biocompatibility, which enables applications with direct skin contact. Therefore, there is a huge need to investigate distinct, straightforward, and textile-compatible production methods for the fabrication of porous PEDOT:PSS structures. Here, we present novel and uncomplicated approaches to producing diverse porous PEDOT:PSS structures and characterize them thoroughly in terms of porosity, electrical resistance, and their overall appearance. Production methods comprise the incorporation of micro cellulose, the usage of a blowing agent, creating a sponge-like structure, and spraying onto a porous base substrate. This results in the fabrication of various porous structures, ranging from thin and slightly porous to thick and highly porous. Depending on the application, these structures can be modified and integrated into electronic components or wearables to serve as porous electrodes, sensors, or other functional devices.

Quality of Electrocardiography Recorded with Consumer Smart Shirts.

Smart wearables support continuous monitoring of vital signs for early detection of deteriorating health. However, the devices and sensors require sufficient quality to produce meaningful signals, in particular, if data is acquired in motion. In this study, we equipped 48 subjects with smart shirts recording one-lead electrocardiography (ECG), thoracic and abdominal respiratory inductance plethysmography, and three-axis acceleration. For 10 min each, the subjects sit, stand, walk, and run, with a resting period of 5 min in between each activity. We preprocessed the electrocardiogram and applied a signal quality index. We analyzed the signal quality index grouped by the activity and participants. For sitting, standing, walking, and running, the ECG signals provide acceptable quality over 73.20 %, 91.85 %, 12.26 %, and 13.14 % of the recording time. In conclusion, smart wearables may be useful for continuous health monitoring of people with a sedentary lifestyle, but rather not for sportive activities.

Light-Driven Multidirectional Bending in Artificial Muscles.

Using light to drive polymer actuators can enable spatially selective complex motions, offering a wealth of opportunities for wireless control of soft robotics and active textiles. Here, the integration of photothermal components is reported into shape memory polymer actuators. The fabricated twist-coiled artificial muscles show on-command multidirectional bending, which can be controlled by both the illumination intensity, as well as the chirality, of the prepared artificial muscles. Importantly, the direction in which these artificial muscles bend does not depend on intrinsic material characteristics. Instead, this directionality is achieved by localized untwisting of the actuator, driven by selective irradiation. The reaction times of this bending system are significantly - at least two orders of magnitude - faster than heliotropic biological systems, with a response time up to one second. The programmability of the artificial muscles is further demonstrated for selective, reversible, and sustained actuation when integrated in butterfly-shaped textiles, along with the capacity to autonomously orient toward a light source. This functionality is maintained even on a rotating platform, with angular velocities of 6°/s, independent of the rotation direction. These attributes collectively represent a breakthrough in the field of artificial muscles, intended to adaptive shape-changing soft systems and biomimetic technologies.

Assessment of the Influence of Fabric Structure on Their Electro-Conductive Properties.

Electro-conductive fabrics are key materials for designing and developing wearable smart textiles. The properties of textile materials depend on the production method, the technique which leads to high conductivity, and the structure. The aim of the research work was to determine the factors affecting the electrical conductivity of woven fabrics and elucidate the mechanism of electric current conduction through this complex, aperiodic textile material. The chemical composition of the material surface was identified using scanning electron microscopy energy dispersion X-ray spectroscopy. The van der Pauw method was employed for multidirectional resistance measurements. The coefficient was determined for the assessment of the electrical anisotropy of woven fabrics. X-ray micro-computed tomography was used for 3D woven structure geometry analysis. The anisotropy coefficient enabled the classification of electro-conductive fabrics in terms of isotropic or anisotropic materials. It was found that the increase in weft density results in an increase in sample anisotropy. The rise in thread width can lead to smaller electrical in-plane anisotropy. The threads are unevenly distributed in woven fabric, and their widths are not constant, which is reflected in the anisotropy coefficient values depending on the electrode arrangement. The smaller the fabric area covered by four electrodes, the fewer factors leading to structure aperiodicity.

Solution-Processed Metallic Nanowire Network for Wearable Transparent Thermal Radiation Shield.

Heating requirements for residential and commercial dwellings result in significant energy consumption and deleterious environmental effects. Personal radiative thermal management textiles regulate the wearer's body temperature by controlling the material's intrinsic optical properties. Passive heating textiles suppress radiative heat losses and therefore significantly reduce the energy consumption required for building heating systems. Guided by an optical theoretical approach, a transparent radiation shield (TRS) is designed based on silver nanowires (AgNWs) that can suppress human body heat with simultaneous visible light transmittance anticipated for practical fabrics. We experimentally demonstrated a TRS with large infrared light reflectance (low emissivity of 35%) and a visible (VIS) transparency value of 75% (400-800 nm). The results are well corroborated by the Mie scattering theory and the wire-mesh equivalent sheet impedance model, which provide fundamental mechanism understanding and guidance toward higher performance. The TRS is fabricated by a simple, solution-processing method with thermoplastic elastomer protective layers, granting notable stretching capabilities, mechanical robustness, and conformability to any body shape or object. The rigorous theoretical strategy enables the scalable synthesis of low-emissivity and visibly transparent textiles for personal thermal comfort.

Bio-based epoxy resin/carbon nanotube coatings applied on cotton fabrics for smart wearable systems.

Electroactive coatings for smart wearable textiles based on a furan bio-epoxy monomer (BOMF) crosslinked with isophorone diamine (IPD) and additivated with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are reported herein. The effect of BOMF/IPD molar ratio on the curing reaction, as well as on the properties of the crosslinked resins was first assessed, and it was found that 1.5:1 BOMF/IPD molar ratio provided higher heat of reaction, glass transition temperature, and mechanical performance. The resin was then modified with CNT to prepare electrically conductive nanocomposite films, which exhibited conductivity values increased by eight orders of magnitude upon addition of 5 phr of CNTs. The epoxy/CNT nanocomposites were finally applied as coatings onto a cotton fabric to develop electrically conductive, hydrophobic and breathable textiles. Notably, the integration of CNTs imparted efficient and reversible electrothermal behavior to the cotton fabric, showcasing its potential application in smart and comfortable wearable electronic devices.

Flame retardant cotton fabrics with ultra-fast and long-term fire early warning response.

Smart textiles with flame retardant and fire-warning functions have received more and more attention. However, improving the fire-warning response sensitivity and long-term responsiveness of the smart textiles is a top priority. In this research, flame retardant and fire-warning cotton fabrics were prepared by layer-by-layer assembly composite coating consisting of bio-based flame retardants composed of chitosan (CS) and phytic acid (PA) and carbon-based nanomaterials composed of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene oxide (GO). The PA-GO/CS-CNTs coated cotton fabric showed excellent flame retardancy with a limiting oxygen index (LOI) value of 31 %, and the coated fabrics could self-extinguish rapidly when the flame was removed. The fire hazard of the coated fabric was significantly reduced by reducing the 45.77 % of peak heat release rate, 29.69 % of total heat release and 81.9 % of total smoke production. The PA-GO/CS-CNTs coated cotton fabric showed ultra-fast fire warning response with the response time of 1.0 s. And the fire-warning response time of the coated cotton fabric could last longer than 600 s revealing it possessed the continuous fire warning response property. This research provides a new strategy to prepare the smart fireproof textiles with flame retardant and fire-warning functions to broaden its application in early fire-warning.

Substrate-Free Transfer of Silicon- and Metallic-Based Strain Sensors on Textile and in Composite Material for Structural Health Monitoring.

New technologies to integrate electronics and sensors on or into objects can support the growth of embedded electronics. The method proposed in this paper has the huge advantage of being substrate-free and applicable to a wide range of target materials such as fiber-based composites, widely used in manufacturing, and for which monitoring applications such as fatigue, cracks, and deformation detection are crucial. Here, sensors are first fabricated on a donor substrate using standard microelectronic processes and then transferred to the host material by direct transfer printing. Results show the viability of composites instrumented by strain gauges. Indeed, dynamic and static measurements highlight that the deformations can be detected with high sensitivity both on the surface and at various points in the depth of the composite material. Thanks to this technology, for the first time, a substrate-free piezoresistive n-doped silicon strain sensor is transferred into a composite material and characterized as a function of strain applied on it. It is shown that the transfer process does not alter the electrical behavior of the sensors that are five times more sensitive than extensively used metallic ones. An application designed for monitoring the deformation of a rudder foil with a classic NACA profile in real time is presented.

Smart Graphene Textiles for Biopotential Monitoring: Laser-Tailored Electrochemical Property Enhancement.

While most of the research in graphene-based materials seeks high electroactive surface area and ion intercalation, here, we show an alternative electrochemical behavior that leverages graphene's potential in biosensing. We report a novel approach to fabricate graphene/polymer nanocomposites with near-record conductivity levels of 45 Ω sq-1 and enhanced biocompatibility. This is realized by laser processing of graphene oxide in a sandwich structure with a thin (100 µm) polyethylene terephthalate film on a textile substrate. Such hybrid materials exhibit high conductivity, low polarization, and stability. In addition, the nanocomposites are highly biocompatible, as evidenced by their low cytotoxicity and good skin adhesion. These results demonstrate the potential of graphene/polymer nanocomposites for smart clothing applications.

The effect of neuromuscular electrical stimulation on the human skeletal muscle transcriptome.

AIM: The influence on acute skeletal muscle transcriptomics of neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES), as compared to established exercises, is poorly understood. We aimed to investigate the effects on global mRNA-expression in the quadriceps muscle early after a single NMES-session, compared to the effects of voluntary knee extension exercise (EX), and to explore the discomfort level. METHODS: Global vastus lateralis muscle gene expression was assessed (RNA-sequencing) in 30 healthy participants, before and 3 h after a 30-min session of NMES and/or EX. The NMES-treatment was applied using textile electrodes integrated in pants and set to 20% of each participant's pre-tested MVC mean (±SD) 200 (±80) Nm. Discomfort was assessed using Visual Analogue Scale (VAS, 0-10). The EX-protocol was performed at 80% of 1-repetition-maximum. RESULTS: NMES at 20% of MVC resulted in VAS below 4 and induced 4448 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with 80%-overlap of the 2571 DEGs of EX. Genes well-known to be up-regulated following exercise, for example, PPARGC1A, ABRA, VEGFA, and GDNF, were also up-regulated by NMES. Gene set enrichment analysis demonstrated many common pathways after EX and NMES. Also, some pathways were exclusive to either EX, for example, muscle tissue proliferation, or to NMES, for example, neurite outgrowth and connective tissue proliferation. CONCLUSION: A 30-min NMES-session at 20% of MVC with NMES-pants, which can be applied with an acceptable level of discomfort, induces over 4000 DEGs, of which 80%-overlap with DEGs of EX. NMES can induce exercise-like molecular effects, that potentially can lead to health and performance benefits in individuals who are unable to perform resistance exercise.

Experimental Analyses and Predictive Modelling of Ultrasonic Welding Parameters for Enhancing Smart Textile Fabrication.

This study aims to illustrate the design, fabrication, and optimisation of an ultrasonic welding (UW) machine to join copper wires with non-woven PVC textiles as smart textiles. The study explicitly evaluates UW parameters' impact on heat generation, joint strength, and electrical properties, with a comprehensive understanding of the process dynamics and developing a predictive model applicable to smart textiles. The methodological approach involved designing and manufacturing an ultrasonic piezoelectric transducer using ABAQUS finite element analyses (FEA) software and constructing a UW machine for the current purpose. The full factorial design (FFD) approach was employed in experiments to systematically assess the influence of welding time, welding pressure, and copper wire diameter on the produced joints. Experimental data were meticulously collected, and a backpropagation neural network (BPNN) model was constructed based on the analysis of these results. The results of the experimental investigation provided valuable insights into the UW process, elucidating the intricate relationship between welding parameters and heat generation, joint strength, and post-welding electrical properties of the copper wires. This dataset served as the basis for developing a neural network model, showcasing a high level of accuracy in predicting welding outcomes compared to the FFD model. The neural network model provides a valuable tool for controlling and optimising the UW process in the realm of smart textile production.

A fully textile-based, tunable, force and strain sensing resistor for e-textile applications.

This work presents a novel approach towards integrating electronic components with textiles, by successfully creating a fully textile-based element that is capable of detecting applied forces by variation in its resistance value. The fabrication of the device consists of a specialized siliconized conductive fabric, which is placed above and below a layer of switch fabric, which acts as a force sensor. In this paper, the effects of three different geometries are observed, as well as the washability of the device, along with tension testing. Μoreover, the device behavior is simulated as well as applied in a real-life scenario. The proposed element demonstrates a good dynamic range, high repeatability and stability, and minimal impact of washing, creating a great candidate for integration in e-textiles.

Future Thread: Printing Electronics on Fibers.

This article introduces a methodology to increase the integration density of functional electronic features on fibers/threads/wires through additive deposition of functional materials via printed electronics. It opens the possibility to create a multifunctional intelligent system on a single fiber/thread/wire while combining the advantages of existing approaches, i.e., the scalability of coating techniques and the microfeatures of semiconductor-based fabrication. By directly printing on threads (of diameters ranging from 90 to 1000 µm), micropatterned electronic devices and multifunctional electronic systems could be formed. Contact and noncontact printing methods were utilized to create various shapes from serpentines and meanders to planar coils and interdigitated electrodes, as well as complex multilayer structures for thermal and light actuators, humidity, and temperature sensors. We demonstrate the practicality of the method by integrating a multifunctional thread into a FFP mask for breath monitoring. Printing technologies provide virtually unrestricted choices for the types of threads, materials, and devices used. They are scalable via roll-to-roll processes and offer a resource-efficient way to democratize electronics across textile products.

Fabrication and Photothermal Actuation Performances of Electrospun Carbon Nanotube/Liquid Crystal Elastomer Blend Yarn Actuators.

Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) are a kind of polymer network that combines the entropic elasticity of polymer networks and the mesogenic unit by means of mild cross-linking. LCEs have been extensively investigated in various fields, including artificial muscles, actuators, and microrobots. However, LCEs are characterized by the poor mechanical properties of the light polymers themselves. In this study, we propose to prepare a carbon nanotube/liquid crystal elastomer (CNT/LCE) composite yarn by electrospinning technology and a two-step cross-linking strategy. The CNT/LCE composite yarn exhibits a reversible shrinkage ratio of nearly 70%, a tensile strength of 16.45 MPa, and a relatively sensitive response speed of ∼3 s, enabling a fast response by photothermal actuation. The research disclosed in this article may provide new insights for the development of artificial muscles and next-generation smart robots.

Advances in Smart Photovoltaic Textiles.

Energy harvesting textiles have emerged as a promising solution to sustainably power wearable electronics. Textile-based solar cells (SCs) interconnected with on-body electronics have emerged to meet such needs. These technologies are lightweight, flexible, and easy to transport while leveraging the abundant natural sunlight in an eco-friendly way. In this Review, we comprehensively explore the working mechanisms, diverse types, and advanced fabrication strategies of photovoltaic textiles. Furthermore, we provide a detailed analysis of the recent progress made in various types of photovoltaic textiles, emphasizing their electrochemical performance. The focal point of this review centers on smart photovoltaic textiles for wearable electronic applications. Finally, we offer insights and perspectives on potential solutions to overcome the existing limitations of textile-based photovoltaics to promote their industrial commercialization.

Investigation of Factors Affecting the Performance of Textronic UHF RFID Transponders.

The aim of this paper is to demonstrate progress in textronic UHF RFID transponder (RFIDtex tag) technology. The fundamental idea behind the RFIDtex tag design involves galvanic separation between circuits of the sewn antenna and the chip, which are electromagnetically coupled through a system of inductive loops. To advance the development of this concept, it is crucial to detect factors affecting the performance of the transponders. To achieve this goal, a mathematical model of the textronic UHF RFID transponder was developed. It involves relationships that describe the impedance of each element, the mutual inductance of the loops, and the chip voltage, and it enables the exploration of the influence of these variables on general parameters such as impedance matching and read range. Various analytical and numerical approaches were considered to obtain the value of the mutual inductance of the loops. The dimensions and geometry of the antenna, as well as the matching circuit in the microelectronic module, were taken into account. Based on the mathematical model, it was determined that mutual inductance strongly affects the chip voltage for frequencies higher than 800 MHz. The calculations from the mathematical model were compared with numerical simulations. Experimental studies were also conducted to investigate how the transponder performance is affected by either the distance between the centers of the loops or the conductivity of the threads used to embroider the antenna. The measurement results allowed us to conclude that even small imperfections in the manufacturing of the transponder, which slightly increase the vertical or horizontal distance between the centers of the loops, cause a dramatic decrease in the mutual inductance and coupling coefficient, significantly impacting the transponder's performance.

Wear-Resistant Smart Textiles Using Nylon-11 Triboelectric Yarns.

The ever-increasing demand for self-powered systems such as glucose biosensors and mixed reality devices has sparked significant interest in triboelectric generators, which hold large potential as renewable energy solutions. Our study explores new methods for integrating energy-harvesting capabilities into smart textiles by developing strong and efficient yarns that can convert mechanical energy into electrical energy through a triboelectric effect. Specifically, we focused on Nylon-11 (PA11), a material known for its crystalline structure well-suited for generating a powerful triboelectric response. To achieve this, we created triboelectric yarns by electrospinning PA11 fibers onto conductive carbon yarns, enabling energy-harvesting applications. Extensive testing demonstrated that these yarns possess exceptional durability, surpassing real-life usage requirements while experiencing minimal degradation. Additionally, we developed a prototype haptic device by interweaving tribopositive PA11 and tribonegative poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) triboelectric yarns. Our research has successfully yielded durable and efficient yarns with strong energy-harvesting capabilities, opening up possibilities for integrating smart textiles into practical scenarios. These technologies are promising steps to achieve greener and more reliable self-powered systems.