Assessment of the effects of the biotic and abiotic harmful factors on the amount of industrial wood production with deep learning.

The protection and sustainability of forest assets is possible with planned production of forest products to lead to minimum loss. One of the products obtained from forests is the industrial wood, which is the most important raw material for many sectors. Thus, changes in industrial wood production amounts directly affect these sectors. For this reason, it is important to detect and examine the factors affecting industrial wood production amounts for optimum production and use of this raw material. This study aims to investigate and assess the effects of two biotic and two abiotic harmful factors on the amount of industrial wood production by building a deep learning estimation model. These factors are forest fires, insect outbreaks, diseases, and severe weather events. The study shows that the most harmful factor decreasing the industrial wood production level is diseases. The second effective factor, however, appears to be severe weather events. The third and the fourth factors were determined to be insect outbreaks and burned forest areas, respectively.

A new integrated circular economy index and a combined method for optimization of wood production chain considering carbon neutrality.

The wood industry is potentially advantageous to applying the concepts of circular economy for sustainable development and can contribute to the commitment of carbon neutrality. This study developed an integrated circular economy index based on five different quantitative indicators for assessment of the wood production chain: heat recovery rate, CO2 sequestration rate, fossil fuel substitution rate, renewable electricity usage rate, and revenue increase from the by-products. A combination of best-worst method (BWM) and linear goal programming (LGP) techniques was investigated to develop an optimal circular economy model of wood processing chain for reduction in CO2 emission. The integrated circular economy index and the combined method were tested in a case-study of a rubberwood processing chain in Vietnam. The proposed model suggests that the woodchips and biomass from the harvesting and processing of rubberwood could be collected and treated using microwave thermolysis techniques; the enzyme hydrolysis technique is appropriate for bioethanol and biomethane recovery from the sawdust; and the hot air technique is preferable in the drying process. The proposed model could result in a significant reduction of the total net carbon emission from +552,750 tons CO2eq to -1,145,940 tons CO2eq per year. This could support the achievement of Vietnam's zero CO2 emission goal and hopefully contribute to the country's commitment to carbon emission neutrality by the year 2050.

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (Rhizophagus clarus) and Rhizobacteria (Bacillus subtilis) Can Improve the Clonal Propagation and Development of Teak for Commercial Plantings.

The Tectona grandis L.f. (teak) is an important forest species with high economy value in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In Latin America, Brazil is one of the countries with the most cultivated areas. The cultivation of teak turns out to be challenging because of its high nutritional demand and the need for seedling production by clonal propagation that includes about 90 days in the nursery phase. The optimization of seedling production is necessary for better results in the nursery and to enhance growth in the field. In this way, the well-known advantage of using microorganisms that promote plant development appears as a potential biotechnological approach to be explored and for the implantation of new areas of wood production. In this study, the inoculation of Bacillus subtilis as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) was evaluated, and Rhizophagus clarus, an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF), and the co-inoculation of these microorganisms in the teak seedling production phase can improve the development of commercial plantations under field conditions. Experiments were carried out under greenhouse and field conditions to evaluate four treatments based on the substrate inoculation of the seedlings. Treatments consisted of a non-inoculated control, PGPR inoculation, AMF inoculation, and PGPR + AMF inoculation. The results of the biometric evaluation of seedlings in the greenhouse showed that there was a significant difference in AMF inoculation and PGPR + AMF inoculation in terms of the specific root length and root density treatments, there was also a positive correlation between these two treatments and the absorption of some nutrients, such as P, N, K, Mg, Cu, Mn, and Zn. This response led to an increase between 4.75 and 11.04% in the field growth rate.

Producing wood at least cost to biodiversity: integrating Triad and sharing-sparing approaches to inform forest landscape management.

Forest loss and degradation are the greatest threats to biodiversity worldwide. Rising global wood demand threatens further damage to remaining native forests. Contrasting solutions across a continuum of options have been proposed, yet which of these offers most promise remains unresolved. Expansion of high-yielding tree plantations could free up forest land for conservation provided this is implemented in tandem with stronger policies for conserving native forests. Because plantations and other intensively managed forests often support far less biodiversity than native forests, a second approach argues for widespread adoption of extensive management, or 'ecological forestry', which better simulates natural forest structure and disturbance regimes - albeit with compromised wood yields and hence a need to harvest over a larger area. A third, hybrid suggestion involves 'Triad' zoning where the landscape is divided into three sorts of management (reserve, ecological/extensive management, and intensive plantation). Progress towards resolving which of these approaches holds the most promise has been hampered by the absence of a conceptual framework and of sufficient empirical data formally to identify the most appropriate landscape-scale proportions of reserves, extensive, and intensive management to minimize biodiversity impacts while meeting a given level of demand for wood. In this review, we argue that this central challenge for sustainable forestry is analogous to that facing food-production systems, and that the land sharing-sparing framework devised to establish which approach to farming could meet food demand at least cost to wild species can be readily adapted to assess contrasting forest management regimes. We develop this argument in four ways: (i) we set out the relevance of the sharing-sparing framework for forestry and explore the degree to which concepts from agriculture can translate to a forest management context; (ii) we make design recommendations for empirical research on sustainable forestry to enable application of the sharing-sparing framework; (iii) we present overarching hypotheses which such studies could test; and (iv) we discuss potential pitfalls and opportunities in conceptualizing landscape management through a sharing-sparing lens. The framework we propose will enable forest managers worldwide to assess trade-offs directly between conservation and wood production and to determine the mix of management approaches that best balances these (and other) competing objectives. The results will inform ecologically sustainable forest policy and management, reduce risks of local and global extinctions from forestry, and potentially improve a valuable sector's social license to operate.

Assessment and valuation of key ecosystem services provided by two forest ecosystems in Turkey.

The study was designed to quantify value and the spatial distribution of key ecosystem services such as wood production, habitat for biodiversity, carbon sequestration and air quality regulation in two areas: Eregli and Yesilkusak of Turkey. Wood production was quantified using forest inventory data and yield tables. Carbon storage was estimated based on the above - and below - ground biomass, deadwood and litter and soil. Habitat for species was characterized with a practical method based on the protection categories of stands. Vegetation cover in close proximity to the artificial surfaces and total health care cost avoided by the vegetation were used to quantify air quality regulation. Value transfer method was used in the valuation of ES in both areas. Average amount of wood production is quite low (5.7 m3/ha in Eregli and 6 m3/ha in Yesilkusak) compared to the overall average (72 m3/ha) in Turkey. The amount of carbon is largely low (64-100 tC/ha), indicating poor to medium capacity of the areas. The value of habitat for biodiversity is medium with some crucial habitats and target species. Both areas indicate low air quality regulation capacity. Total economic value of the key ecosystem services was estimated $438,128,571 in 2017 ($127,303,516 for Yesilkusak, $310,825,054 for Eregli). Composition and configuration of ecosystems determine the sustainable provision of ecosystem services. The potential economic value of ecosystems constitutes the basis for trade-off analysis in allocating best land use and utilization strategy. Developing enabling environment, accessing the best use of technologies and adopting best practice example for realizing sustainable forest management initiative is proposed to be the apparent strategy to enhance the role of ecosystem services in livelihood.

Conventional land-use intensification reduces species richness and increases production: A global meta-analysis.

Most current research on land-use intensification addresses its potential to either threaten biodiversity or to boost agricultural production. However, little is known about the simultaneous effects of intensification on biodiversity and yield. To determine the responses of species richness and yield to conventional intensification, we conducted a global meta-analysis synthesizing 115 studies which collected data for both variables at the same locations. We extracted 449 cases that cover a variety of areas used for agricultural (crops, fodder) and silvicultural (wood) production. We found that, across all production systems and species groups, conventional intensification is successful in increasing yield (grand mean + 20.3%), but it also results in a loss of species richness (-8.9%). However, analysis of sub-groups revealed inconsistent results. For example, small intensification steps within low intensity systems did not affect yield or species richness. Within high-intensity systems species losses were non-significant but yield gains were substantial (+15.2%). Conventional intensification within medium intensity systems revealed the highest yield increase (+84.9%) and showed the largest loss in species richness (-22.9%). Production systems differed in their magnitude of richness response, with insignificant changes in silvicultural systems and substantial losses in crop systems (-21.2%). In addition, this meta-analysis identifies a lack of studies that collect robust biodiversity (i.e. beyond species richness) and yield data at the same sites and that provide quantitative information on land-use intensity. Our findings suggest that, in many cases, conventional land-use intensification drives a trade-off between species richness and production. However, species richness losses were often not significantly different from zero, suggesting even conventional intensification can result in yield increases without coming at the expense of biodiversity loss. These results should guide future research to close existing research gaps and to understand the circumstances required to achieve such win-win or win-no-harm situations in conventional agriculture.

Management intensification maintains wood production over multiple harvests in tropical Eucalyptus plantations.

Plantation forestry, in which trees are grown as a crop, must maintain wood production over repeated harvest cycles (rotations) to meet global wood demands on a limited land area. We analyze 33 yr of Landsat observations across the world's most productive forestry system, Eucalyptus plantations in southeastern Brazil, to assess long-term regional trends in wood production. We apply a simple algorithm to time series of the vegetation index NIRv in thousands of Eucalyptus stands to detect the starts and ends of rotations. We then estimate wood production in each identified stand and rotation, based on a statistical relationship between NIRv trajectories and inventory data from three plantation companies. We also compare Eucalyptus NIRv with that of surrounding native vegetation to assess the relative influence of management and environment on plantation productivity trends. Across more than 3,500 stands with three complete rotations between 1984 and 2016, modeled wood volume decreased significantly between the first and second rotation, but recovered at least partially in the third; mean wood volumes for the three rotations were 262, 228, and 247 m3 /ha. This nonlinear trend reflects intensifying plantation management, as rotation length decreased by an average of 15% (decreasing wood volume per rotation) and NIRv proxies of tree growth rates increased (increasing volume) between the first and third rotation. However, NIRv also increased significantly over time in unmanaged vegetation around the plantations, suggesting that environmental trends affecting all vegetation also contribute to sustaining wood production. Management inputs will likely continue to be important for maintaining wood production in future harvests.

A comparative study of cambium histology of Ceiba speciosa (A. St.-Hil.) Ravenna (Malvaceae) under urban pollution.

Air pollution is considered to be one of the main causes of forest decline. The cambium is responsible for increase in tree girth, and its functioning is determined by environmental pressures. This study compared cambium histology of Ceiba speciosa (A. St.-Hil.) Ravenna (Malvaceae) in polluted and preserved sites in the Atlantic Rainforest domain. Samples were obtained during periods of cambial activity and dormancy and were processed and examined according to standard light microscopy techniques. In addition to differences typically observed in cambium during periods of activity and dormancy, the fusiform initials were shorter in trees of the polluted site. Furthermore, cambial rays were shorter, but larger, in the polluted site. It should be noted that all parameters related to cambial rays showed significant differences between the study sites. This is the first report of the effects of pollution on cambial activity in a South American species. The results suggest a tolerance of C. speciosa to pollution and reveal this species to be an important biomarker for environmental monitoring studies.

Using the Viability Theory to Assess the Flexibility of Forest Managers Under Ecological Intensification.

Greater demand for wood material has converged with greater demand for biodiversity conservation to make balancing forest ecosystem services a key societal issue. Forest managers, owners, or policymakers need new approaches and methods to evaluate their ability to adapt to this dual objective. We analyze the ability of forest owners to define sustainable forest management options based on viability theory and a new flexibility index. This new indicator gauges the adaptive capacity of forest owners based on the number of sustainable actions available to them at a given time. Here we study a public forest owner who regulates harvest intensity and frequency in order to meet demand for timber wood at forest scale and to meet a biodiversity recommendation via a minimum permanently maintained volume of deadwood per hectare at stand scale. Dynamical systems theory was used to model uneven-aged forest dynamics-including deadwood dynamics-and the dynamics of timber wood demand and tree removals. Uneven-aged silver fir forest management in the "Quatre Montagnes region" (Vercors, France) is used as an illustrative example. The results explain situations where a joint increase in wood production and deadwood retention does not reduce the flexibility index more than increasing either one dimension alone, thus opening up ecological intensification options. To conclude, we discuss the value of the new flexibility index for addressing environmental management and ecological intensification issues.

New insights into mechanisms driving carbon allocation in tropical forests.

The proportion of carbon allocated to wood production is an important determinant of the carbon sink strength of global forest ecosystems. Understanding the mechanisms controlling wood production and its responses to environmental drivers is essential for parameterization of global vegetation models and to accurately predict future responses of tropical forests in terms of carbon sequestration. Here, we synthesize data from 105 pantropical old-growth rainforests to investigate environmental controls on the partitioning of net primary production to wood production (%WP) using structural equation modeling. Our results reveal that %WP is governed by two independent pathways of direct and indirect environmental controls. While temperature and soil phosphorus availability indirectly affected %WP via increasing productivity, precipitation and dry season length both directly increased %WP via tradeoffs along the plant economics spectrum. We provide new insights into the mechanisms driving %WP, allowing us to conclude that projected climate change could enhance %WP in less productive tropical forests, thus increasing carbon sequestration in montane forests, but adversely affecting lowland forests.

Wood production response to climate change will depend critically on forest composition and structure.

Established forests currently function as a major carbon sink, sequestering as woody biomass about 26% of global fossil fuel emissions. Whether forests continue to act as a global sink will depend on many factors, including the response of aboveground wood production (AWP; MgC ha(-1 ) yr(-1) ) to climate change. Here, we explore how AWP in New Zealand's natural forests is likely to change. We start by statistically modelling the present-day growth of 97 199 individual trees within 1070 permanently marked inventory plots as a function of tree size, competitive neighbourhood and climate. We then use these growth models to identify the factors that most influence present-day AWP and to predict responses to medium-term climate change under different assumptions. We find that if the composition and structure of New Zealand's forests were to remain unchanged over the next 30 years, then AWP would increase by 6-23%, primarily as a result of physiological responses to warmer temperatures (with no appreciable effect of changing rainfall). However, if warmth-requiring trees were able to migrate into currently cooler areas and if denser canopies were able to form, then a different AWP response is likely: forests growing in the cool mountain environments would show a 30% increase in AWP, while those in the lowland would hardly respond (on average, -3% when mean annual temperature exceeds 8.0 °C). We conclude that response of wood production to anthropogenic climate change is not only dependent on the physiological responses of individual trees, but is highly contingent on whether forests adjust in composition and structure.

New insights into carbon allocation by trees from the hypothesis that annual wood production is maximized.

Allocation of carbon (C) between tree components (leaves, fine roots and woody structures) is an important determinant of terrestrial C sequestration. Yet, because the mechanisms underlying C allocation are poorly understood, it is a weak link in current earth-system models. We obtain new theoretical insights into C allocation from the hypothesis (MaxW) that annual wood production is maximized. MaxW is implemented using a model of tree C and nitrogen (N) balance with a vertically resolved canopy and root system for stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies). MaxW predicts optimal vertical profiles of leaf N and root biomass, optimal canopy leaf area index and rooting depth, and the associated optimal pattern of C allocation. Key insights include a predicted optimal C-N functional balance between leaves at the base of the canopy and the deepest roots, according to which the net C export from basal leaves is just sufficient to grow the basal roots required to meet their N requirement. MaxW links the traits of basal leaves and roots to whole-tree C and N uptake, and unifies two previous optimization hypotheses (maximum gross primary production, maximum N uptake) that have been applied independently to canopies and root systems.

Comportamento de espécies florestais em plantios a pleno sol e em faixas de enriquecimento de capoeira na Amazônia / Forest species behavior in plantations at full sun and secondary forest enrichment strips in the Amazon

Foram avaliadas espécies florestais nativas e exóticas em duas condições de plantio: a pleno sol e em faixas de enriquecimento de capoeira, a fim de gerar tecnologias para incorporação ao processo produtivo de áreas alteradas na região amazônica para minimizar a pressão do desmatamento sobre a floresta natural. Os dados analisados (DAP, altura, volume por hectare e sobrevivência) referem-se à idade de seis anos. No plantio a pleno sol, a espécie que apresentou o melhor desempenho foi Ceiba pentandra, com médias de DAP de 19,6 cm, altura de 10,2 m e volume de 390,9 m³ ha-1. Hymenaea courbaril também apresentou crescimento satisfatório, com médias de 11,5 cm de DAP, 10,8 m de altura e 144,8 m³ ha -1 de volume. Nos plantios de enriquecimento de capoeira, a Carapa guianensis foi a espécie que apresentou o melhor desempenho, com 8,3 cm de DAP, 6,4 m de altura e volume de 54,8 m³ ha -1. Acacia mangium e Sclerolobium paniculatum apresentaram crescimento superior, mas as taxas de sobrevivência foram muito baixas nas duas condições de plantio.

This work evaluated exotic and native forest species in two plantation conditions: full sun and secondary forest enrichment strips, for generating technologies into incorporate to the productive process of degraded lands in the Amazonian region, to minimize the deforestation pressure on the natural forest. The analyzed data (DBH, height, volume per hectare and survival) refers to six years old species. In the full sun plantation, the species that presented the best performance was Ceiba pentandra, with means: DBH of 19.6 cm, height of 10.2 m and volume of 390.9 m³ ha-1. Hymenaea courbaril also presented satisfactory growth, with means: DBH of 11.5 cm, height of 10.8 m and volume of 144.8 m³ ha-1. In the secondary forest enrichment plantation, Carapa guianensis was the species that presented the best performance, with means: DBH of 8.3 cm, height of 6.4 m and volume of 54.8 m³ ha-1. Acacia mangium and Sclerolobium paniculatum presented better growth. However, the survival rates were very low in both plantations.