Applicability and usefulness of pupillometry in the study of lexical access. A scoping review of primary research.

Pupil dilation has been associated with the effort required to perform various cognitive tasks. At the lexical level, some studies suggest that this neurophysiological measure would provide objective, real-time information during word processing and lexical access. However, due to the scarcity and incipient advancement of this line of research, its applicability, use, and sensitivity are not entirely clear. This scoping review aims to determine the applicability and usefulness of pupillometry in the study of lexical access by providing an up-to-date overview of research in this area. Following the PRISMA protocol, 16 articles were included in this review. The results show that pupillometry is a highly applicable, useful, and sensitive method for assessing lexical skills of word recognition, word retrieval, and semantic activation. Moreover, it easily fits into traditional research paradigms and methods in the field. Because it is a non-invasive, objective, and automated procedure, it can be applied to any population or age group. However, the emerging development of this specific area of research and the methodological diversity observed in the included studies do not yet allow for definitive conclusions in this area, which in turn does not allow for meta-analyses or fully conclusive statements about what the pupil response actually reflects when processing words. Standardized pupillary recording and analysis methods need to be defined to generate more accurate, replicable research designs with more reliable results to strengthen this line of research.

The effects of emotional stimuli on Word retrieval in people with aphasia.

PURPOSE: Prior studies have shown that people with aphasia (PWA) have demonstrated superior language performance for emotional compared to nonemotional stimuli on a range of tasks, including auditory comprehension, verbal pragmatics, repetition, reading, and writing. However, studies on word retrieval, specifically, have suggested a possible interference effect of emotion on naming. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of the emotional valence of stimuli on word retrieval in a series of naming tasks in PWA. METHOD: Thirteen PWA and 13 neurotypical controls participated in four single-word naming tasks, including 1) object picture naming, 2) action picture naming, 3) category-member generation, and 4) verb generation. Each task included three valence sets of positively-, negatively-, and neutrally-rated pictures or words, which were obtained from the standardized International Affective Picture System (Lang et al., 2008) and the Affective Norms for Emotional Words (Bradley and Lang, 1999) databases. Accuracy and reaction time (RT) were measured and compared across groups, tasks, and valence sets. RESULTS: Emotional stimuli, especially negative stimuli, resulted in worse naming performance, as measured by accuracy and RT, compared to nonemotional stimuli in PWA and neurotypical controls. This effect was relatively robust across the four naming tasks. In most cases, negative stimuli resulted in lower accuracy and slower RT than positive stimuli. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that stimulus valence may interfere with word retrieval for PWA and neurotypical adults and that this effect is robust across different types of naming tasks that vary by word class (nouns versus verbs) and stimulus type (pictures versus words). Negative stimuli resulted in worse naming performance than positive stimuli. These results suggest that emotionality of stimuli is an important variable to consider in word retrieval research.

Complementary auditory and Visual Naming Tests: Revised and updated for ages 16-55 years.

Objective: Historically, naming has been assessed with visual object naming; however, we have found that auditory description naming significantly enhances lateralization and localization of dysfunction. We previously published auditory naming (ANT) and complementary Visual Naming Tests (VNT) for young adults, and recently developed these measures for children (ages 6-15 years) and older adults (ages 56-100 years). Here, we update the original stimuli and more rigorously norm the tests for ages 16-55, addressing prior limitations. Methods: Test stimuli were selected based on item characteristics and preliminary screening, eliminating those with less than 90% name agreement. A sample of 178 healthy individuals ages 16-55 years were administered the updated ANT and VNT, and other standardized measures, either in person (n = 114) or via telehealth (n = 64). Results: With no effect of age, yet a significant influence of education, education-based normative data are provided for accuracy, tips-of-the-tongue (i.e. delayed, accurate responses plus correct responses following phonemic cueing), and an aggregate Summary Score. Internal and test-retest reliability coefficients were reasonable (.67-.90). Conclusions: These measures provide updated and improved naming assessment for ages 16-55 years, contributing to a contiguous set of naming tests for school-aged children through elderly adults. Compared to the original ANT and VNT, these measures were designed to have stimuli longevity, and offer reduced item burden and evidence-based recommendations for performance measures with the greatest clinical sensitivity. The addition of these measures enables continuity in assessment across the age span, facilitating longitudinal assessment related to disease progression or therapeutic intervention.

No negative impact of word retraining on vocabulary use or clarity of communication in semantic dementia.

Word retraining techniques can improve picture naming of treated items in people with semantic dementia (SD). The utility of this, however, has been questioned given the propensity for under- and overgeneralization errors in naming in SD. Few studies have investigated the occurrence of such errors. This study examined whether, following tailored word retraining: (1) misuse of words increases, (2) the type of naming errors changes, and/or (3) clarity of communication is reduced. Performance on trained and untrained word naming from nine participants with SD who completed a word retraining programme were analysed. Responses from baseline and post-intervention assessments were coded for misuse (i.e., trained word produced for another target item), error type, and communication clarity. All participants showed significant improvement for trained vocabulary. There was no significant increase in misuse of words, with such errors occurring rarely. At a group level, there was an increased tendency toward omission errors for untrained items, and a reduction in semantically related responses. However, this did not impact on clarity scores with no consistent change across participants. In sum, we found no negative impacts following tailored word retraining, providing further evidence of the benefit of these programmes for individuals with SD.

The effect of processing semantic features on spoken word retrieval in a case series of people with aphasia.

Purpose: There is a growing body of evidence showing the benefit of Semantic Feature Analysis in the treatment of word finding abilities in people with aphasia. The original technique was grounded in the hypothesis that the activation of semantic features spreads to the target and thereby facilitates its subsequent retrieval. However, it remains unclear the extent to which the focus on semantic features influences the treatment effects. The aim of this study was therefore to shed light on this issue by examining the effect of priming with semantic features (parts and functions) on target retrieval across a case series of people with aphasia.Method: 10 people with aphasia and word retrieval impairments were primed with spoken forms of words that were either the target name (identity condition, e.g. car), parts of the target (e.g. wheel) or functions of the target (e.g. drive) before later being asked to name a picture of that target. An unrelated prime condition (e.g. employ) was used as a control for test-retest effects.Result: At a group level, there was speeding of reaction times in picture naming in the identity condition relative to the unrelated condition; however, no effect of priming was found for either parts or functions. There was significantly better response accuracy in post-priming naming, but this effect did not reach significance for any individual experimental condition (identity, parts, functions) as compared to the unrelated condition, although the identity condition showed numerical improvement while the other two conditions showed decline.Conclusion: Given the lack of evidence for facilitatory effects from parts and functions of a target in a priming task, this research suggests that further research is warranted on the extent to which the improvement in word retrieval subsequent to Semantic Feature Analysis is caused by the emphasis on production of semantic features rather than from the repetition of the target name.

Successful word retraining, maintenance and transference of practice to everyday activities: A single case experimental design in early onset alcohol-induced brain damage.

Word retraining programs have been shown to improve naming ability post-stroke and in progressive aphasias. Here, we investigated benefits for a 22-year-old Danish man (DJ), whose difficulties followed brain damage from heavy alcohol misuse. Using a multiple baseline-across-behaviours design (target behaviour: retrieval of word list items), DJ completed a 4-week "Look, Listen, Repeat" program on a computer. Ninety personally relevant target words were selected to create three matched lists. List 1 was trained for 10 sessions over 2 weeks, followed by 9 sessions for List 2 over 2 weeks, while the third list remained untrained. Naming performance was evaluated at baseline, during the intervention, and at 1 and 4 months post-training. Naming improved following each intervention block (p < .001), with only one data point overlapping between the baseline and treatment phases for trained items. Untrained words remained unchanged (p = 1.00), with 50% of data points non-overlapping across baseline to treatment phases. Performance was maintained over time, and appeared to generalize, with DJ naming more trained objects in their natural setting (85%) than untrained items (64%). While more evidence is needed, brief (20-minute), intensive (5-day/week) word retraining programs may assist word retrieval for people with brain damage associated with alcohol misuse.

Naming as a window to word retrieval changes in healthy and pathological ageing: Methodological considerations.

BACKGROUND: Word retrieval skills change across the lifespan. Permanent alterations in the form of decreased accuracy or increased response time can be a consequence of both normal ageing processes or the presence of acquired and neurodegenerative disorders (e.g., aphasia and dementia). Despite the extensive literature exploring the neuroanatomical underpinnings of word retrieval, psycholinguistic, biolinguistic and theoretical explanations, and the vast amount of evidence from primary and secondary language disorders, the best approach to consistently capture these changes is yet to be discovered. AIMS: The goal of this paper is to determine which method(s) stand(s) as the most suitable candidate(s) to provide an accurate picture of word retrieval in the oral production of different groups of adult speakers, including cases of healthy ageing, preclinical Alzheimer's disease (AD), mild cognitive impairment (MCI), aphasia and dementia. METHODS & PROCEDURES: Using an integrative review of recent peer-reviewed journal articles, we provide an overview of the different behavioural methods traditionally used to measure oral naming skills in research-oriented and clinical protocols and discuss their main advantages and limitations. MAIN CONTRIBUTION: Most existing studies are based on the results of people with diagnosed language disorders. Despite the growing interest, the reliability of the majority of the tasks to detect subtle changes associated with healthy ageing, MCI and preclinical AD are yet to be demonstrated, and the delicate balance between informativeness and efficiency (especially in terms of administration time and variable control) in experimental protocols is yet to be achieved. In this article we propose the pursuit of an integrative overarching methodology to characterize all naming deficits (from anecdotal to permanent) and all adult populations (from healthy to pathological ageing). CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS: A combination of spontaneous speech data and results from structured tasks stands as the best approach to capture changes in word retrieval skills of adult speakers with and without observable deficits. This review can guide future reflections on the necessary prerequisites of purpose-oriented, sensitive and reliable protocols for the detection of incipient word retrieval problems, thus contributing to the early diagnosis and the design of personalized multicomponent treatments. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on this subject Word retrieval skills change during adulthood as a consequence of the neurological degradation associated with ageing. These changes are more dramatic in the event of acquired and neurodegenerative disorders. Numerous studies based on people with observable language disorders have addressed the multiplicity of factors involved in word retrieval and provided evidence of potential loci of impairment from a neuroanatomical, cognitive and/or (psycho-)linguistic perspective. What this paper adds to existing knowledge This study focuses on methodological strategies to assess naming skills and provides a reflection on generally accepted good practices and unresolved challenges to inform task selection, emphasizing the necessity for a combination of methods to best capture the actual problems and needs of people confronting word retrieval difficulties in their daily lives. Task selection, variable control and administration time stand as key concepts to adjust to the requirements of research and clinical contexts. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? The results of this review can orient future research towards the creation of sensitive, reliable and (ecologically) valid materials for the (early) detection of word retrieval deficits and for the customization of treatment protocols to alleviate or palliate their effects.

Word recall process and physiological activation in the tip-of-the-tongue state: Comparison of young and middle-aged groups.

To clarify the feeling of knowing a name but not being able to recall it, known as having a "tip-of-the-tongue" (TOT) experience, we proposed a TOT model consisting of three stages combining a face recognition model and autonomic sympathetic nerve activity. Since TOT increases with age, we compared two age groups: young (N = 27, M = 20.4 ± 1.5 years) and middle-aged (N = 29, M = 58.5 ± 8.0 years). Experiment 1 showed that successfully naming low-frequency common names increased the skin conductance response (SCR) value, and the time to reach the maximum SCR value was longer. Experiment 2 was a naming task for face photographs. The younger group showed higher SCR values during successfully naming, while the middle-aged group showed similar SCR values for successfully naming and experiencing TOT. Both groups had the longest time to reach maximum SCR in TOT. In this study, physiological arousal of TOT was not affected by aging.

An efficient, accurate and clinically-applicable index of content word fluency in Aphasia.

Background: Despite the clinical importance of assessing the efficiency and accuracy of fluency in terms of content words production during connected speech, assessments based on discourse tasks are very time-consuming and thus not clinically feasible. Aims: (1) Examine the relationship between single-word naming and word retrieval during discourse production. (2) Investigate the relationship between word retrieval and content word fluency derived from a simple versus naturalistic discourse tasks. (3) Develop and validate an efficient and accurate index of content word fluency that is clinically viable. Methods: Two discourse tasks (simple picture description and naturalistic storytelling narrative) were collected from 46 participants with post-stroke aphasia, and 20 age/education matched neuro-typical controls. Each discourse sample was fully transcribed and quantitative analysis was applied to each sample to measure word retrieval and content word fluency. Three single-word naming tasks were also administered to each participant with aphasia. Results: Correlational analyses between single-word naming and word retrieval in connected speech revealed weak/moderate relationships. Conversely, strong correlations were found between measures derived from simple picture description against naturalistic storytelling discourse tasks. Moreover, we derived a novel, transcription-less index of content word fluency from the discourse samples of an independent group (neuro-typical controls), and then we validated this index across two discourse tasks in the tested group (persons with aphasia). Correlation and regression analyses revealed extremely strong relationships between participants' (neuro-typical controls and persons with aphasia) scores on the novel index and measures of content word fluency derived from the formal transcription and quantitative analyses of discourse samples, indicating high accuracy and validity of the new index. Conclusions: Simple picture description rather than picture naming provides a better estimate of word retrieval in naturalistic connected speech. The novel developed index is transcription-less and can be implemented online to provide an accurate and efficient measure of content word fluency. Thus, it is viable during clinical practice for assessment purposes, and possibly as an outcome measure to monitor therapy effectiveness, which can also be used in randomised clinical trials.

Poor Performer: A Distinct Entity in Cochlear Implant Users?

INTRODUCTION: Several factors are known to influence speech perception in cochlear implant (CI) users. To date, the underlying mechanisms have not yet been fully clarified. Although many CI users achieve a high level of speech perception, a small percentage of patients does not or only slightly benefit from the CI (poor performer, PP). In a previous study, PP showed significantly poorer results on nonauditory-based cognitive and linguistic tests than CI users with a very high level of speech understanding (star performer, SP). We now investigate if PP also differs from the CI user with an average performance (average performer, AP) in cognitive and linguistic performance. METHODS: Seventeen adult postlingually deafened CI users with speech perception scores in quiet of 55 (9.32) % (AP) on the German Freiburg monosyllabic speech test at 65 dB underwent neurocognitive (attention, working memory, short- and long-term memory, verbal fluency, inhibition) and linguistic testing (word retrieval, lexical decision, phonological input lexicon). The results were compared to the performance of 15 PP (speech perception score of 15 [11.80] %) and 19 SP (speech perception score of 80 [4.85] %). For statistical analysis, U-Test and discrimination analysis have been done. RESULTS: Significant differences between PP and AP were observed on linguistic tests, in Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN: p = 0.0026), lexical decision (LexDec: p = 0.026), phonological input lexicon (LEMO: p = 0.0085), and understanding of incomplete words (TRT: p = 0.0024). AP also had significantly better neurocognitive results than PP in the domains of attention (M3: p = 0.009) and working memory (OSPAN: p = 0.041; RST: p = 0.015) but not in delayed recall (delayed recall: p = 0.22), verbal fluency (verbal fluency: p = 0.084), and inhibition (Flanker: p = 0.35). In contrast, no differences were found hereby between AP and SP. Based on the TRT and the RAN, AP and PP could be separated in 100%. DISCUSSION: The results indicate that PP constitute a distinct entity of CI users that differs even in nonauditory abilities from CI users with an average speech perception, especially with regard to rapid word retrieval either due to reduced phonological abilities or limited storage. Further studies should investigate if improved word retrieval by increased phonological and semantic training results in better speech perception in these CI users.

Cognitive and linguistic dysfunction after thalamic stroke and recovery process: possible mechanism.

Thalamic stroke may result in cognitive and linguistic problems, but the underlying mechanism remains unknown. Especially, it is still a matter of debate why thalamic aphasia occasionally occurs and then mostly recovers to some degree. We begin with a brief overview of the cognitive dysfunction and aphasia, and then review previous hypotheses of the underlying mechanism. We introduced a unique characteristic of relatively transient "word retrieval difficulty" of patients in acute phase of thalamic stroke. Word retrieval ability involves both executive function and speech production. Furthermore, SMA aphasia and thalamic aphasia may resemble in terms of the rapid recovery, thus suggesting a shared neural system. This ability is attributable to the supplementary motor area (SMA) and inferior frontal cortex (IFG) via the frontal aslant tract (FAT). To explore the possible mechanism, we applied unique hybrid neuroimaging techniques: single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (f-NIRS). SPECT can visualize the brain distribution associated with word retrieval difficulty, cognitive disability or aphasia after thalamic stroke, and f-NIRS focuses on SMA and monitors long-term changes in hemodynamic SMA responses during phonemic verbal task. SPECT yielded common perfusion abnormalities not only in the fronto-parieto-cerebellar-thalamic loop, but also in bilateral brain regions such as SMA, IFG and language-relevant regions. f-NIRS demonstrated that thalamic stroke developed significant word retrieval decline, which was intimately linked to posterior SMA responses. Word retrieval difficulty was rapidly recovered with increased bilateral SMA responses at follow-up NIRS. Together, we propose that the cognitive domain affected by thalamic stroke may be related to the fronto-parieto-cerebellar-thalamic loop, while the linguistic region may be attributable to SMA, IFG and language-related brain areas. Especially, bilateral SMA may play a crucial role in the recovery of word retrieval, and right language-related region, including IFG, angular gyrus and supramarginal gyrus may determine recovery from thalamic aphasia.

Methodological Considerations for Incorporating Clinical Data Into a Network Model of Retrieval Failures.

Difficulty retrieving information (e.g., words) from memory is prevalent in neurogenic communication disorders (e.g., aphasia and dementia). Theoretical modeling of retrieval failures often relies on clinical data, despite methodological limitations (e.g., locus of retrieval failure, heterogeneity of individuals, and progression of disorder/disease). Techniques from network science are naturally capable of handling these limitations. This paper reviews recent work using a multiplex lexical network to account for word retrieval failures and highlights how network science can address the limitations of clinical data. Critically, any model we employ could impact clinical practice and patient lives, harkening the need for theoretically well-informed network models.

Are single-word picture naming assessments a valid measure of word retrieval in connected speech?

Purpose: Picture naming assessments are one of the most common methods of examining word retrieval in aphasia. However, currently, it is unclear whether these assessments are able to accurately predict word retrieval in "real-life" communication. This paper aims to explore the evidence in the current literature regarding the relationship between picture naming and word retrieval in connected speech in people with aphasia.Method: Literature was reviewed that examined the correlation between picture naming and word retrieval in connected speech. The literature search was limited to articles that were English language, participants with aphasia, and that were not therapy studies.Result: The existing studies showed mixed findings. However, comparison of study outcomes was complicated by inconsistency in the research methods used, including in word retrieval measures and connected speech elicitation.Conclusion: While there is some evidence of a relationship between picture naming and word retrieval in connected speech, correlation outcomes were mixed with possible influences from participant characteristics, assessment method and speech sample type. We therefore suggest that clinical decision-making would benefit from supplementing picture naming tests with an analysis of word retrieval in connected speech. Further research is required with a focus on natural conversation and the development of standard testing procedures for connected speech.

Emotional Valence Affects Word Retrieval During Verb Fluency Tasks in Alzheimer's Dementia.

Individuals with amnestic Alzheimer's disease (AD) often demonstrate preserved emotional processing skills despite the neurodegenerative disease that affects their limbic system. Emotional valence encompasses the encoding and retrieval of memory and it also affects word retrieval in healthy populations, but it remains unclear whether these effects are preserved in individuals with amnestic AD. Previous studies used a variety of encoding procedures and different retrieval methods that resulted in mixed findings. Therefore, the purpose of the current study is to investigate whether emotional enhancement of memory effects is observed in an experimental condition where the memory encoding process is not required, namely verb (action) fluency tasks. Seventeen participants who were cognitively healthy older adults (CHOA) and 15 participants with amnestic AD were asked to complete verb fluency tasks, and the relative degree of emotional valence observed in their responses was compared between the two groups. A neuropsychological test battery was administered to determine the participants' cognitive and linguistic profiles, and correlational analyses were conducted to delineate relationships between emotional valence, verbal memory, and learning abilities. The results indicated that the participants with amnestic AD produced words with higher emotional valence (i.e., more pleasant words) compared to CHOA during action fluency testing. In addition, the degree of emotional valence in the words was negatively correlated with verbal memory and learning skills, showing that those with poorer memory skills tend to retrieve words with higher emotional valence. The findings are consistent with those previous studies that stressed that individuals with AD have preserved emotional enhancement of memory effects and may benefit from them for retrieval of information, which may offer some insight into the development of novel rehabilitative strategies for this population.

Support for an inhibitory model of word retrieval.

Word retrieval may involve an inhibitory process in which a target word is activated and related words are suppressed. In the current functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study, we examined the inhibition of language processing cortex by the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) during word retrieval using an anagram-solving paradigm. Participants were presented with a distractor that was read aloud followed by a to-be-solved anagram. Distractor types were defined relative to orthographic overlap with the subsequent anagram solution and included related words with one letter different (e.g., "gripe" for the anagram of "price"), related pseudo-words, and unrelated words (i.e., all five letters were different). The anagram solution reaction time was slower in both the related word and related pseudo-word distractor conditions as compared to the unrelated word distractor condition, which can be attributed to greater inhibition following related distractors. The contrast of related words and unrelated words produced one activation in the left DLPFC, a region that has been associated with memory inhibition. To identify the regions that were negatively correlated with activity in the left DLPFC for related distractors, we conducted a functional connectivity analysis between this left DLPFC region and the rest of the brain. We found negatively correlated activity between the DLPFC and language processing cortex for the related word distractor condition (and the related pseudo-word distractor condition at a relaxed threshold). These findings suggest that that the left DLPFC may inhibit related word (and pseudo-word) representations in language processing cortex.

Effects of concurrent action and object naming treatment on naming skills and functional brain activation patterns in primary progressive aphasia: An fMRI study with a case-series design.

Individuals with primary progressive aphasia (PPA) exhibit differential impairment patterns in noun and verb naming, but it remains unclear whether anomia treatment results in similar improvements in noun and verb naming. Therefore, we examined the immediate and long-term (3-months post-treatment) behavioral and neural effects of an anomia treatment on object and action naming skills in PPA. A case-series design was utilized involving two individuals with PPA. Object and action words were trained concurrently and probed regularly using word lists matched on a number of lexical characteristics. One participant showed improvements in all word categories with different effect sizes whereas the other participant demonstrated improved naming only on trained object words. Treatment-induced fMRI changes were found in both hemispheres, with distinct patterns observed across participants. Further research is needed to better understand the effects of residual language and cognitive skills on behavioral and neurophysiological outcomes following anomia treatment for PPA.

Word retrieval difficulty in adult females with the FMR1 premutation: Changes over time and across contexts.

Individuals with a premutation of the fragile X mental retardation (FMR1) gene are at risk for a variety of psychological, physical, and cognitive issues, including difficulty with word retrieval. The present study examined three indicators of word retrieval difficulty; reduced productivity, reduced lexical diversity, and increased errors in word retrieval in a group of 38 female premutation carriers during standard-length speech samples collected over a period of eight years. Our results revealed that as women aged, they produced fewer words, produced fewer different words, and had greater word retrieval errors. In addition, the rate of word retrieval errors was highly correlated between two speaking contexts, indicating that this difficulty was pervasive and not solely the result of speaking in monologue. Our results suggest that subtle areas of cognitive decline emerge at a much earlier age among female premutation carriers than would be expected during healthy aging.

Picture-Word Interference Effects Are Robust With Covert Retrieval, With and Without Gamification.

The picture-word interference (PWI) paradigm has been used to investigate the time course of processes involved in word retrieval, but is challenging to implement online due to dependence on measurements of vocal reaction time. We performed a series of four experiments to examine picture-word interference and facilitation effects in a form of covert picture naming, with and without gamification. A target picture was accompanied by an audio word distractor that was either unrelated, phonologically-related, associatively-related, or categorically-related to the picture. Participants were instructed to judge whether the name of the target picture ended in the phoneme assigned to the block by pressing corresponding keys as quickly and accurately as possible. Experiments 1 and 2 successfully replicated categorical interference and phonological facilitation effects at different optimal stimulus-onset-asynchronies (SOAs) between words and pictures. Experiment 3 demonstrated that a key gamification feature (collecting coins) motivated faster speed at the expense of accuracy in the gamified vs. experimental format of the task. Experiment 4 adopted the optimal SOAs and verified that the gamification reveals expected interference and facilitation effects despite the speed-accuracy tradeoff. These studies confirmed that categorical interference occurs earlier than phonological facilitation, while both processes are independent from articulation and inherent to word retrieval itself. The covert PWI paradigm and its gamification have methodological value for neuroimaging studies in which articulatory artifacts obscure word retrieval processes, and may be developed into potential online word-finding assessments that can reveal word retrieval difficulties with greater sensitivity.

Effectiveness of Semantic-based Treatment in Persons with Aphasia.

BACKGROUND: Semantic-based treatment is the salient approach used to remediate word retrieval deficits in persons with aphasia (PWAs). It is deemed to improve semantic attributes around the target word, thus aids in restoring word retrieval abilities. Hence, the present study has developed a semantic-based therapy named semantic cueing of verbs and its thematic role (SCVTr). Also, this therapy uses verbs as a core element accompanied by graded levels of semantic cues. AIM: The current study Semantic Cueing of Verbs and its Thematic role (SCVTr) aimed to evaluate the effect of word retrieval abilities in PWAs. METHODS AND PROCEDURE: Three participants (n = 3) with aphasia were recruited for the study. All the participants in the study received SCVTr therapy, and the responses were analyzed at three distinct time points. That is pre-therapy assessment (before initiation of therapy), mid-therapy assessment (10th session), and post-therapy assessment (20th session). Nouns, verbs, and discourse abilities of PWAs were evaluated using standardized test batteries. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: The study results have discerned positive gains across trained conditions and discourse genres across all the participants. However, participants exhibited marginal gains with untrained stimuli. In addition, SCVTr therapy aids in modifying the error pattern exhibited by PWAs. Concurrently, researchers noted that all participants showed ameliorated performance on the standardized language test batteries during post-therapy evaluation. CONCLUSIONS: SCVTr therapy has found to be effective in remediating word retrieval deficits in PWAs. This study extends the knowledge about strengthening the semantic network associated with the target word and its effect on generalization.

Quantifying the Interplay of Semantics and Phonology During Failures of Word Retrieval by People With Aphasia Using a Multiplex Lexical Network.

Investigating instances where lexical selection fails can lead to deeper insights into the cognitive machinery and architecture supporting successful word retrieval and speech production. In this paper, we used a multiplex lexical network approach that combines semantic and phonological similarities among words to model the structure of the mental lexicon. Network measures at different levels of analysis (degree, network distance, and closeness centrality) were used to investigate the influence of network structure on picture naming accuracy and errors by people with Anomic, Broca's, Conduction, and Wernicke's aphasia. Our results reveal that word retrieval is influenced by the multiplex lexical network structure in at least two ways-(a) the accuracy of production and error type on incorrect productions were influenced by the degree and closeness centrality of the target word, and (b) error type also varied in terms of network distance between the target word and produced error word. Taken together, the analyses demonstrate that network science techniques, particularly the use of the multiplex lexical network to simultaneously represent semantic and phonological relationships among words, reveal how the structure of the mental lexicon influences language processes beyond traditionally examined psycholinguistic variables. We propose a framework for how the multiplex lexical network approach allows for understanding the influence of mental lexicon structure on word retrieval processes, with an eye toward a better understanding of the nature of clinical impairments, like aphasia.