The marks of leprosy: disabilities caused by plantar lesions in discharged patients.

Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease that has a slow evolution and is characterized by dermatoneurological involvement. The health challenges surrounding this disease are closely related to the stigma that results from the physical disabilities it causes. This is due to its high rate of late diagnosis and the peculiar deformities that occur in its advanced stage. Evaluate the clinical and epidemiological aspects of patients with plantar lesions who were treated for leprosy in a dermatology referral unit. This is a cross-sectional exploratory field study that was conducted at the Reference Center in Tropical Dermatology and Venereology Alfredo da Matta (FUHAM), in Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. We evaluated 36 patients with disabilities as a result of leprosy and who had plantar lesions. The most common ulcer site was the medial region of the plantar surface, which presented dryness and maceration with yellowish seropurulent exudate, fibrinous tissue and grade 2 depth. The study made it possible to observe the evolution of plantar ulcers resulting from the disease process, then evaluate them and discuss recommendations regarding the treatment and prevention of this type of physical disability.

Two-year incidence and risk factors of diabetic foot ulcer: second phase report of Ahvaz diabetic foot cohort (ADFC) study.

AIM/INTRODUCTION: This study was designed as the second phase of a prospective cohort study to evaluate the incidence and risk factors of diabetic foot ulcers (DFU). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study was conducted in a university hospital in Iran. Each participant was checked and followed up for two years in terms of developing newfound DFU as ultimate outcome. We investigated the variables using univariate analysis and then by backward elimination multiple logistic regression. RESULTS: We followed up 901 eligible patients with diabetes for two years. The mean age of the participants was 53.24 ± 11.46 years, and 58.53% of them were female. The two-year cumulative incidence of diabetic foot ulcer was 8% (95% CI 0.071, 0.089) [Incidence rate: 49.9 /1000 person-years]. However, the second-year incidence which was coincident with the COVID-19 pandemic was higher than the first-year incidence (4.18% and 1.8%, respectively). Based on our analysis, the following variables were the main risk factors for DFU incidence: former history of DFU or amputation [OR = 76.5, 95% CI(33.45,174.97), P value < 0.001], ill-fitting foot-wear [OR = 10.38, 95% CI(4.47,24.12), P value < 0.001], smoking [OR = 3.87,95%CI(1.28, 11.71),P value = 0.016], lack of preventive foot care [OR = 2.91%CI(1.02,8.29),P value = 0.045], and insufficient physical activity[OR = 2.25,95% CI(0.95,5.35),P value = 0.066]. CONCLUSION: Overall, the two-year cumulative incidence of diabetic foot ulcer was 8% [Incidence rate: 49.9 /1000 person-years]; however, the second-year incidence was higher than the first-year incidence which was coincident with the COVID-19 pandemic (4.18% and 1.8%, respectively). Independent risk factors of DFU occurrence were prior history of DFU or amputation, ill-fitting footwear, smoking, lack of preventive foot care, and insufficient physical activity.

Prevalence of plantar ulcer and its risk factors in leprosy: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Plantar ulcers are a leading complication of leprosy that requires frequent visits to hospital and is associated with stigma. The extent of burden of ulcers in leprosy and its risk factors are scant impeding the development of targeted interventions to prevent and promote healing of ulcers. The aim of this review is to generate evidence on the prevalence of plantar ulcer and its risk factors in leprosy. METHODS: Databases (Medline, Embase, Web of Science, CINAHL, BVS), conference abstracts and reference lists were searched for eligible studies. Studies were included that reported a point prevalence of plantar ulcer and/or its "risk factors" associated with development of ulcers (either causatively or predictively), including individual level, disease related and bio-mechanical factors. We followed PRISMA guidelines for this review. Random-effects meta-analysis was undertaken to estimate the pooled point prevalence of ulcers. Reported risk factors in included studies were narratively synthesised. This review is registered in PROSPERO: CRD42022316726. RESULTS: Overall, 15 studies (8 for prevalence of ulcer and 7 for risk factors) met the inclusion criteria. The pooled point prevalence of ulcer was 34% (95% CIs: 21%, 46%) and 7% (95% CIs: 4%, 11%) among those with foot anaesthesia and among all people affected by leprosy, respectively. Risk factors for developing ulcers included: unable to feel 10 g of monofilament on sensory testing, pronated/hyper-pronated foot, foot with peak plantar pressure, foot with severe deformities, and those with lower education and the unemployed. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of plantar ulceration in leprosy is as high as 34% among those with loss of sensation in the feet. However, the incidence and recurrence rates of ulceration are least reported. The inability to feel 10 g of monofilament appears to be a strong predictor of those at risk of developing ulcers. However, there is a paucity of evidence on identifying those at risk of developing plantar ulcers in leprosy. Prospective studies are needed to estimate the incidence of ulcers. Identifying individuals at risk of ulcers will help design targeted interventions to minimize risk factors, prevent ulcers and promote ulcer healing.

Evaluation of risk factors for foot ulceration in individuals with chronic kidney disease.

INTRODUCTION: CKD, like DM, is an independent risk factor for the development and course of foot ulcers. OBJECTIVE: The authors studied the incidence and risk factors of foot ulceration in patients with CKD and with or without DM and in patients receiving or not receiving HD. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients with or without DM and with renal failure were divided into 4 groups of 40 patients each according to whether or not they were receiving HD. Data were collected using a patient information form, physical examination of the foot, and risk assessment forms. RESULTS: Lower extremity ulceration was highest in group 3 (HD+DM+) (15% [6 of 40]), that is, in patients with CKD and DM receiving HD (P = .421). Patients in group 3 were at highest risk for foot ulcers (72.5%) compared with other groups (P = .001). Risk factors associated with foot ulceration were advanced stage (ie, stage 4 or 5) CKD, HD treatment, age, BMI, history of lower extremity ulceration and/or amputation, foot deformities, skin and nail pathology, neuropathy, and vascular insufficiency. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with CKD receiving HD are at high risk for foot ulcers, and this risk increases with the presence of DM.

Epidemiological clinical profile and closure of chronic plantar ulcers in patients with leprosy sequelae undergoing orthopedic surgery in a municipality in western Amazon.

INTRODUCTION: Chronic plantar ulcers in leprosy are lesions resulting from motor and sensory alterations caused by Mycobacterium leprae. They are lesions refractory to conventional dressings and present high recurrence rates. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the epidemiological clinical profile of patients with chronic plantar ulcers associated with bony prominences in the lesion bed and to evaluate the efficacy of orthopedic surgical treatment of these lesions. METHODS: This is a descriptive and analytical retrospective study with the evaluation of medical records of patients undergoing surgical treatment of chronic plantar ulcers from 2008 to 2018. The surgical technique applied consisted of corrective resection of bone prominences and the primary closure of the lesion with bipediculated local flap. RESULTS: 234 patients were submitted to surgery, 55.1% male with an average age of 69.5 years old. Of these, 82.9% were illiterate; and 88.5% with open lesions over 10 years. After surgical treatment, total wound healing occurred in an average time of 12 weeks. The variables that contributed to shorter healing time were: Patients' lower age group; regular use of orthopedic shoes and insoles and dressings performed by nurse aides in health units before surgery. Obesity was the factor that correlated with the delay of healing time. CONCLUSION: A higher incidence was observed in males and male and female illiterate patients. The regular use of shoes and insoles and dressings performed by nurse aides in health units contributed to shorter postoperative healing time. Orthopedic surgical treatment with corrective resection of bony prominences proved to be an efficient therapeutic method for the closure of chronic plantar ulcers. It is a reproducible method, justifying the importance of the orthopedic surgeon in the context of the multidisciplinary team to cope with these complex lesions.

Health Literacy predicts incident foot ulcers after 4 years - the SHELLED cohort study.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: To determine whether health literacy is associated with an index diabetes-related foot ulcer (DFU). METHODS: The SHELLED Study is a 4-year prospective study of people with diabetes aged over 40 with no history of DFU. The primary outcome was development of a first foot ulcer. Health Literacy was measured using the short form Test of Functional Health Literacy in Adults (s-TOFHLA) and nine domains of the Health Literacy Questionnaire (HLQ). RESULTS: Of 222 participants, 191 (86.0%) completed the study, of whom 13 (5.9%) developed an incident ulcer. In multivariable models, every unit increase in S-TOFHLA was associated with a reduced odds of foot ulcer development by 6% (OR 0.94, 95% CI 0.88 to 0.99). Better scores on two HLQ domains reduced the odds of foot ulcer (actively managing my health (OR 0.23, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.65) and understanding health information well enough to know what to do (OR 0.39, 95% CI 0.19 to 0.78). This was independent of baseline risk for foot disease. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: These data provide novel evidence that health literacy is an important clinical risk factor for index foot ulceration. This is an area of potential focus for research and development of educational programs or policy aimed at reducing development of incident foot ulceration.

Distal symmetrical polyneuropathy is present in all individuals with diabetes and foot ulcers - and does not associate with healing time.

We estimated the occurrence of diabetic neuropathy using six different diagnostic modalities in individuals with newly diagnosed diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) and assessed the association with DFU healing time. All individuals with DFU had distal symmetrical polyneuropathy. Presence of neuropathy did not associate with ulcer healing time (p ≥ 0.12).

Prognostic models for predicting the risk of foot ulcer or amputation in people with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and external validation study.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Approximately 25% of people with type 2 diabetes experience a foot ulcer and their risk of amputation is 10-20 times higher than that of people without type 2 diabetes. Prognostic models can aid in targeted monitoring but an overview of their performance is lacking. This study aimed to systematically review prognostic models for the risk of foot ulcer or amputation and quantify their predictive performance in an independent cohort. METHODS: A systematic review identified studies developing prognostic models for foot ulcer or amputation over minimal 1 year follow-up applicable to people with type 2 diabetes. After data extraction and risk of bias assessment (both in duplicate), selected models were externally validated in a prospective cohort with a 5 year follow-up in terms of discrimination (C statistics) and calibration (calibration plots). RESULTS: We identified 21 studies with 34 models predicting polyneuropathy, foot ulcer or amputation. Eleven models were validated in 7624 participants, of whom 485 developed an ulcer and 70 underwent amputation. The models for foot ulcer showed C statistics (95% CI) ranging from 0.54 (0.54, 0.54) to 0.81 (0.75, 0.86) and models for amputation showed C statistics (95% CI) ranging from 0.63 (0.55, 0.71) to 0.86 (0.78, 0.94). Most models underestimated the ulcer or amputation risk in the highest risk quintiles. Three models performed well to predict a combined endpoint of amputation and foot ulcer (C statistics >0.75). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Thirty-four prognostic models for the risk of foot ulcer or amputation were identified. Although the performance of the models varied considerably, three models performed well to predict foot ulcer or amputation and may be applicable to clinical practice.

A new application of the Rotterdam Diabetic Foot Study Test Battery: grading pedal sensory loss to predict the risk of foot ulceration.

AIMS: To assess the relationship between the degree of loss of foot sensation at baseline and incidence of foot ulceration (DFU). METHODS: Diabetic patients (n = 416) participating in the observational Rotterdam Diabetic Foot (RDF) Study were followed prospectively (median 955.5 days (IQR, 841.5-1121)). Subjects underwent sensory testing of the feet (39-item RDF Study Test Battery) at baseline and were assessed regarding incident DFU. Seven groups of incremental degree of sensory loss were distinguished, according to the RDF-39 sum score. Kaplan-Meier and regression analyses were used to determine the independent hazard of baseline variables for new DFU. RESULTS: 40 participants developed DFUs. The mean incident rate of new-onset ulceration from study start was 4.5 (95%CI: 3.3 to 6.1) per 100 person-years, which increased significantly from 0 to 67.70 in the seven groups (p < 0.0005). Predictors for DFUs were higher RDF-39 score (aHR: 1.173, p < 0.0005) and kidney function (aHR: 1.022, p = 0.016). Prior DFU suggests increased mortality risk. CONCLUSIONS: The degree of sensory loss at baseline was associated with progression to DFU during follow-up. Grading the loss of sensation using the RDF Study Test Battery may result in a more precise risk stratification compared to the use of the 10 g monofilament according to current guidelines.

Human Wound and Its Burden: Updated 2020 Compendium of Estimates.

Significance: Chronic wounds impact the quality of life (QoL) of nearly 2.5% of the total population in the United States and the management of wounds has a significant economic impact on health care. Given the aging population, the continued threat of diabetes and obesity worldwide, and the persistent problem of infection, it is expected that chronic wounds will continue to be a substantial clinical, social, and economic challenge. In 2020, the coronavirus disease (COVID) pandemic dramatically disrupted health care worldwide, including wound care. A chronic nonhealing wound (CNHW) is typically correlated with comorbidities such as diabetes, vascular deficits, hypertension, and chronic kidney disease. These risk factors make persons with CNHW at high risk for severe, sometimes lethal outcomes if infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (pathogen causing COVID-19). The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted several aspects of the wound care continuum, including compliance with wound care visits, prompting alternative approaches (use of telemedicine and creation of videos to help with wound dressing changes among others), and encouraging a do-it-yourself wound dressing protocol and use of homemade remedies/substitutions. Recent Advances: There is a developing interest in understanding how the social determinants of health impact the QoL and outcomes of wound care patients. Furthermore, addressing wound care in the light of the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of telemedicine options in the continuum of care. Future Directions: The economic, clinical, and social impact of wounds continues to rise and requires appropriate investment and a structured approach to wound care, education, and related research.

Health service organisation impact on lower extremity amputations in people with type 2 diabetes with foot ulcers: systematic review and meta-analysis.

AIMS: Despite the evidence available on the epidemiology of diabetic foot ulcers and associated complications, it is not clear how specific organizational aspects of health care systems can positively affect their clinical trajectory. We aim to evaluate the impact of organizational aspects of care on lower extremity amputation rates among people with type 2 diabetes affected by foot ulcers. METHODS: We conducted a systematic review of the scientific literature published between 1999 and 2019, using the following key terms as search criteria: people with type 2 diabetes, diagnosed with diabetic foot ulcer, treated with specific processes and care pathways, and LEA as primary outcome. Overall results were reported as pooled odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals obtained using fixed and random effects models. RESULTS: A total of 57 studies were found eligible, highlighting the following arrangements: dedicated teams, care pathways and protocols, multidisciplinary teams, and combined interventions. Among them, seven studies qualified for a meta-analysis. According to the random effects model, interventions including any of the four arrangements were associated with a 29% reduced risk of any type of lower extremity amputation (OR = 0.71; 95% CI 0.52-0.96). The effect was larger when focusing on major LEAs alone, leading to a 48% risk reduction (OR = 0.52; 95% CI 0.30-0.91). CONCLUSIONS: Specific organizational arrangements including multidisciplinary teams and care pathways can prevent half of the amputations in people with diabetes and foot ulcers. Further studies using standardized criteria are needed to investigate the cost-effectiveness to facilitate wider implementation of improved organizational arrangements. Similarly, research should identify specific roadblocks to translating evidence into action. These may be structures and processes at the health system level, e.g. availability of professionals with the right skillset, reimbursement mechanisms, and clear organizational intervention implementation guidelines.

Extent of heel ulceration influences the outcomes in patients with isolated infrapopliteal limb threatening critical ischemia.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the present study was to assess the effects of the extent of heel ulceration on the outcomes of limb threatening critical ischemia due to isolated infrapopliteal disease. METHODS: A retrospective review identified 989 patients with isolated infrapopliteal disease and heel ulceration treated from 2001 to 2018. The heel was defined as the back of the foot, extending from the Achilles tendon to around the plantar surface and covering the apex of the calcaneum bone. Heel ulceration was categorized into three groups by area: <5 cm2, 5 to 10 cm2, and >10 cm2. The interventions were endovascular, open bypass, major amputation, and wound care. An intention-to-treat analysis by patient group was performed. The 30-day outcomes and amputation-free survival (AFS; survival without a major amputation) were evaluated. RESULTS: Of the 989 patients, 384 (58% male; average age, 65 years; n = 768 vessels) had undergone isolated endovascular tibial intervention, 124 (45% male; average age, 59 years) had undergone popliteal tibial vein bypass for limb threatening critical ischemia, 219 (52% male; average age, 67 years) had undergone major amputation, and 242 (49% male; average age, 66 years) had received wound care. No difference was found in the 30-day major adverse cardiac events in the endovascular and open bypass groups, with significantly more events in the major amputation group (P = .03). The 30-day major adverse limb events and 30-day amputation rates were equivalent between the open bypass and endovascular groups. The 5-year AFS rate was superior in the open bypass group (37% ± 8%; mean ± standard error of the mean) compared with the endovascular group (27% ± 9%; P = .04). The wound care group had a 5-year AFS rate of 20% ± 9%, which was not significantly different from that of the endovascular group. Patients with heel ulcers of <5 cm2 had better AFS (47% ± 8%) than those with 5- to 10- cm2 heel ulceration (24% ± 9%). Heel ulcers >10 cm2 were associated with markedly worse 5-year AFS outcomes (0% ± 0%). The presence of end-stage renal disease, osteomyelitis, uncontrolled diabetes (hemoglobin A1c >10%), and/or frailty combined with a heel ulcer >10 cm2 were predictive of poor AFS. CONCLUSIONS: An increasing heel ulcer area combined with osteomyelitis and systemic comorbidities was associated with worsening 30-day outcomes and 5-year AFS, irrespective of the therapy chosen.

In-shoe pressure thresholds for people with diabetes and neuropathy at risk of ulceration: A systematic review.

INTRODUCTION: In-shoe pressure thresholds play an increasingly important role in the prevention of diabetes-related foot ulceration (DFU). The evidence of their effectiveness, methodological consistency and scope for refinement are the subject of this review. METHODS: 1107 records were identified (after duplicate removal) based on a search of five databases for studies which applied a specific in-shoe pressure threshold to reduce the risk of ulceration. 37 full text studies were assessed for eligibility of which 21 were included. RESULTS: Five in-shoe pressure thresholds were identified, which are employed to reduce the risk of diabetes-related foot ulceration: a mean peak pressure threshold of 200 kPa used in conjunction with a 25% baseline reduction target; a sustained pressure threshold of 35 mm Hg, a threshold matrix based on risk, shoe size and foot region, and a 40-80% baseline pressure reduction target. The effectiveness of the latter two thresholds have not been assessed yet and the evidence for the effectiveness of the other in-shoe pressure thresholds is limited, based only on two RCTs and two cohort studies. CONCLUSIONS: The heterogeneity of current measures precludes meta-analysis and further research and methodological standardisation is required to facilitate ready comparison and the further development of these pressure thresholds.

Microbiological profile of diabetic foot ulcers in Kuwait.

INTRODUCTION: Diabetic foot ulcers (DFU) and infection (DFI) are a major diabetes-related problem around the world due to the high prevalence of diabetes in the population. The aim of our study was to determine the microbiological profile of infected ulcers in patients attending Dasman Diabetes Institute (DDI) clinics in Kuwait and to analyze the distribution of microbial isolates according to wound grade, sex, age and diabetes control. METHODS: We collected and analyzed clinical data and samples from 513 diabetic patients with foot ulcers referred to our podiatry clinic at DDI from Jan 2011 till Dec 2017. RESULTS: We show a higher prevalence of DFU in men than in women, and a greater percentage of DFU occurred in men at an earlier age (p<0.05). Only about half of the DFU were clinically infected (49.3%) but 92% of DFU showed bacterial growth in the microbiological lab analysis. In addition, we isolated more monomicrobial (57.3%) than polymicrobial (34.8%) DFI and representing an average of 1.30 pathogens per patient. The presence of Gram-positive and Gram-negative strains was comparable between men and women regardless their age or glucose levels. Interestingly, more Gram-positive strains are present in ulcers without ischemia while more Gram-negative strains are present in ulcers with ischemia (p<0.05). While Staphylococcus aureus was common in infected ulcers without ischemia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa was predominant in ulcers with infection and ischemia, regardless of ulcer depth. Finally, a higher percentage of women has controlled HbA1c levels (19.41% versus 11.95% in men) and more women in this group displayed non-infected wounds (60.6% and 43.90% for women and men, respectively). CONCLUSION: Our results provide an updated picture of the DFI patterns and antibiotics resistance in patients attending Dasman Diabetes Institute (DDI) clinics in Kuwait which might help in adopting the appropriate treatment of infected foot and improving clinical outcomes.

Risk assessment for foot ulcers among Tunisian subjects with diabetes: a cross sectional outpatient study.

BACKGROUND: Diabetic foot is an underestimated and redoubtable diabetes complication. The aims of our study were to assess diabetic foot ulcer risk factors according to International Working Group on the Diabetic Foot (IWGDF) classification, stratify patients into risk categories and identify factors associated with higher-risk grade. METHODS: Cross-sectional setting over a period of 07 months, patients were randomly selected from the diabetic outpatients attending our unit of diabetology. Questionnaire and clinical examination were made by the same physician. Patients free of active foot ulcer were included. RESULTS: Among 230 patients evaluated, 10 had an active foot ulcer and were excluded. Five patients (2.27%) had a history of foot ulcer and 3(1.36%) had a lower-limb amputation. Sensory neuropathy, as measured by the 5.07(10 g) Semmes-Weinstein monofilament testing, was present in 23.63% of patients, whereas 36.82% had a peripheral arterial disease based on clinical findings, and 43.63% had foot deformities. According to the IWGDF classification, Group 0: 72.72%, Group 1: 5.9%, Group 2: 17.73% and Group 3: 3.63%. After univariate analysis, patients in higher-risk groups were significantly more often female, had higher age and BMI, longer diabetes duration, elevated waist circumference, low school level, retinopathy and hyperkeratosis. Multivariate logistic regression analysis identified 3 significant independent factors associated with high-risk groups: retinopathy (OR = 2.529, CI95 [1.131-5.655], p = 0.024), hyperkeratosis (OR = 2.658, CI95 [1.222-5.783], p = 0.014) and school level (OR = 0.489, CI95 [0.253-9.44], p = 0.033). CONCLUSIONS: Risk factors for foot ulceration were rather common in outpatients with diabetes. The screening of patients at risk for foot ulceration should start early, integrated with sustainable patient education.

Comorbidities associated with non- healing of plantar ulcers in leprosy patients.

BACKGROUND: Non-healing plantar ulcers are one of the significant causes of disability in leprosy patients. Plantar ulcers often take months or years to heal, affecting the patient's quality of life. Presence of comorbid conditions in these patients can delay wound healing. The study aimed to evaluate the role of associated comorbid conditions as risk factors in ulcer healing. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: A total of 66 leprosy patients with plantar ulcers registered at LEPRA Society-Blue Peter Public Health and Research Center (BPHRC), Hyderabad, India from June 2018 to June 2019 were studied. Comprehensive clinical assessment was done, including screening for comorbid conditions and treated as per the recommended guidelines. About two-thirds of the participants were aged 50 and above, of which more than half were illiterates, and 93.5% were living below the poverty line. Majority of ulcers were seen on the forefoot; with the head of meta-tarsal bone 27 (41.6%) as the commonest site, followed by calcaneum 23 (38.3%) and great toe 10 (16.6%). Mean ulcer depth was 0.61 (0.57) cm, the area was 5.24 (6.73) cm2 and ulcer volume was 4.72 (14.33) cm3. Ulcer dimensions were significantly associated with low body mass index, hypertension and smoking. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Identifying the risk factors delaying wound healing and detailed assessment of ulcers are of profound importance to predict the outcome of plantar ulcers in leprosy patients. The study findings indicate the need for better policies by the leprosy control program for the comprehensive management of plantar ulcers.

Derivation and validation of a clinical prediction model for assessing the risk of lower extremity amputation in patients with type 2 diabetes.

AIM: This study aims to develop and validate a lower extremity amputation (LEA) risk score system in persons with type 2 diabetes. METHODS: A retrospective population-based cohort study was conducted among eligible 21,484 participants in the derivation set and 10,742 participants in the validation set who were enrolled in the Taiwan National Diabetes Care Management Program. The risk score system was developed following the steps proposed by the Framingham Heart Study with a Cox proportional hazards model algorithm. Discrimination ability was assessed by the receiver operating characteristic curve, and calibration was performed by Hosmer-Lemeshow test. RESULTS: A total of 504 patients developed LEA at an average follow-up of 7.4 years. The point scores were derived from 15 predictors as follows: age, gender, duration of type 2 diabetes, body mass index, HbA1c, triglyceride, eGFR, variation of fasting blood glucose, comorbidities of stroke, diabetes retinopathy, hypoglycemia and foot ulcer, anti-diabetes medication, and use of diuretics and nitrates. The c-statistics for predicting 3-, 5-, and 8-year LEA risks were 0.80 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.76-0.83], 0.78 (0.75-0.81), and 0.76 (0.74-0.79) in the derivation set, respectively, and 0.81 (0.76-0.85), 0.77 (0.73-0.81), and 0.74 (0.71-0.77) in the validation set, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: A new risk score for LEA was developed and validated in the clinical setting with good discriminatory ability. Poor glycemic control, glucose variation, comorbidities, and medication use were identified as predictive factors for LEA in patients with type 2 diabetes.

The role of foot pressure measurement in the prediction and prevention of diabetic foot ulceration-A comprehensive review.

The predominant risk factor of diabetic foot ulcers (DFU), peripheral neuropathy, results in loss of protective sensation and is associated with abnormally high plantar pressures. DFU prevention strategies strive to reduce these high plantar pressures. Nevertheless, several constraints should be acknowledged regarding the research supporting the link between plantar pressure and DFUs, which may explain the low prediction ability reported in prospective studies. The majority of studies assess vertical, rather than shear, barefoot plantar pressure in laboratory-based environments, rather than during daily activity. Few studies investigated previous DFU location-specific pressure. Previous studies focus predominantly on walking, although studies monitoring activity suggest that more time is spent on other weight-bearing activities, where a lower "peak" plantar pressure might be applied over a longer duration. Although further research is needed, this may indicate that an expression of cumulative pressure applied over time could be a more relevant parameter than peak pressure. Studies indicated that providing pressure feedback might reduce plantar pressures, with an emerging potential use of smart technology, however, further research is required. Further pressure analyses, across all weight-bearing activities, referring to location-specific pressures are required to improve our understanding of pressures resulting in DFUs and improve effectiveness of interventions.