Role of Endothelin-1 Receptors in Limiting Leg Blood Flow and Glucose Uptake During Hyperinsulinemia in Type 2 Diabetes.

Skeletal muscle insulin resistance is a hallmark of individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D). In healthy individuals insulin stimulates vasodilation, which is markedly blunted in T2D; however, the mechanism(s) remain incompletely understood. Investigations in rodents indicate augmented endothelin-1 (ET-1) action as a major contributor. Human studies have been limited to young obese participants and focused exclusively on the ET-1 A (ETA) receptor. Herein, we have hypothesized that ETA receptor antagonism would improve insulin-stimulated vasodilation and glucose uptake in T2D, with further improvements observed during concurrent ETA + ET-1 B (ETB) antagonism. Arterial pressure (arterial line), leg blood flow (LBF; Doppler), and leg glucose uptake (LGU) were measured at rest, during hyperinsulinemia alone, and hyperinsulinemia with (1) femoral artery infusion of BQ-123, the selective ETA receptor antagonist (n = 10 control, n = 9 T2D) and then (2) addition of BQ-788 (selective ETB antagonist) for blockade of ETA and ETB receptors (n = 7 each). The LBF responses to hyperinsulinemia alone tended to be lower in T2D (controls: ∆161 ±â€…160 mL/minute; T2D: ∆58 ±â€…43 mL/minute, P = .08). BQ-123 during hyperinsulinemia augmented LBF to a greater extent in T2D (% change: controls: 14 ±â€…23%; T2D: 38 ±â€…21%, P = .029). LGU following BQ-123 increased similarly between groups (P = .85). Concurrent ETA + ETB antagonism did not further increase LBF or LGU in either group. Collectively, these findings suggest that during hyperinsulinemia ETA receptor activation restrains vasodilation more in T2D than controls while limiting glucose uptake similarly in both groups, with no further effect of ETB receptors (NCT04907838).

Effects of systemic and renal intramedullary endothelin-1 receptor blockade on tissue NO and intrarenal hemodynamics in normotensive and hypertensive rats.

Endothelin 1 (ET-1) seems essential in salt-dependent hypertension, and activation of ETA receptors causes renal vasoconstriction. However, the response in the renal medulla and the role of tissue NO availability has never been adequately explored in vivo. We examined effects of ETA and ETB receptor blockade (atrasentan and BQ788) on blood pressure (MAP), medullary blood flow (MBF) and medullary tissue NO. Effects of systemic and intramedullary blocker application were compared in anesthetized normotensive ET-1-pretreated Sprague-Dawley rats (S-D), in salt-dependent hypertension (HS/UNX) and in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Total renal blood flow (RBF) was measured using a Transonic renal artery probe, MBF as laser-Doppler flux, and tissue NO signal using selective electrodes. In normotensive rats ET-1 significantly increased MAP, decreased RBF (-20%) and renal medullary NO. In HS/UNX rats atrasentan decreased MAP and increased medullary NO, earlier and more profoundly with intravenous infusion. In SHR atrasentan decreased MAP, more effectively with intravenous infusion; the increase in tissue NO (∼10%) was similar with both routes; however, only intramedullary atrasentan increased MBF. No consistent responses to BQ788 were seen. We confirmed dominant role of ETA receptors in regulation of blood pressure and renal hemodynamics in normotensive and hypertensive rats and provided novel evidence for the role of ETA in control of intrarenal NO bioavailability in salt-dependent and spontaneous hypertension. Under conditions of activation of the endothelin system ETB stimulation preserved medullary perfusion.

ETB receptor-mediated vasodilation is regulated by estradiol in young women.

The endothelin-B (ETB) receptor is a key regulator of vascular endothelial function in women. We have previously shown that the ETB receptor mediates vasodilation in young women, an effect that is lost after menopause. However, the direct impact of changes in estradiol (E2) on ETB receptor function in women remains unclear. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that E2 exposure modulates ETB receptor-mediated dilation in young women. Fifteen young women (24 ± 4 yr, 24 ± 3 kg/m2) completed the study. Endogenous sex hormone production was suppressed with daily administration of a gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist (GnRHant; Ganirelix) for 10 days; E2 (0.1 mg/day, Vivelle-Dot patch) was added back on days 4-10. We measured vasodilation in the cutaneous microcirculation (microvascular endothelial function) via local heating (42°C) on day 4 (GnRHant) and day 10 (GnRHant + E2) using laser Doppler flowmetry coupled with intradermal microdialysis during perfusions of lactated Ringer's (control) and ETB receptor antagonist (BQ-788, 300 nM). During GnRHant, vasodilatory responses to local heating were enhanced with ETB receptor blockade (control: 83 ± 9 vs. BQ-788: 90 ± 5%CVCmax, P = 0.004). E2 administration improved vasodilation in the control site (GnRHant: 83 ± 9 vs. GnRHant + E2: 89 ± 8%CVCmax, P = 0.036). Furthermore, cutaneous vasodilatory responses during ETB receptor blockade were blunted after E2 administration (control: 89 ± 8 vs. BQ-788: 84 ± 8%CVCmax, P = 0.047). These data demonstrate that ovarian hormones, specifically E2, modulate ETB receptor function and contribute to the regulation of microvascular endothelial function in young women.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The endothelin-B (ETB) receptor mediates vasodilation in young women, an effect lost following menopause. It is unclear whether these alterations are due to aging or changes in estradiol (E2). During endogenous hormone suppression (GnRH antagonist), blockade of ETB receptors enhanced cutaneous microvascular vasodilation. However, during E2 administration, blockade of ETB receptors attenuated vasodilation, indicating that the ETB receptor mediates dilation in the presence of E2. In young women, ETB receptors mediate vasodilation in the presence of E2, an effect that is lost when E2 is suppressed.

Inhibition of endothelin-B receptor signaling synergizes with MAPK pathway inhibitors in BRAF mutated melanoma.

The clinical benefit of MAPK pathway inhibition in melanoma patients carrying BRAF mutations is temporal. After the initial response to treatment, the majority of tumors will develop resistance and patients will relapse. Here we demonstrate that the endothelin-endothelin receptor B (ETBR) signaling pathway confers resistance to MAPK pathway inhibitors in BRAF mutated melanoma. MAPK blockade, in addition to being anti-proliferative, induces a phenotypic change which is characterized by increased expression of melanocyte-specific genes including ETBR. In the presence of MAPK inhibitors, activation of ETBR by endothelin enables the sustained proliferation of melanoma cells. In mouse models of melanoma, including patient-derived xenograft models, concurrent inhibition of the MAPK pathway and ETBR signaling resulted in a more effective anti-tumor response compared to MAPK pathway inhibition alone. The combination treatment significantly reduced tumor growth and prolonged survival compared to therapies with MAPK pathway inhibitors alone. The phosphoproteomic analysis revealed that ETBR signaling did not induce resistance towards MAPK pathway inhibitors by restoring MAPK activity, but instead via multiple alternative signaling pathways downstream of the small G proteins GNAq/11. Together these data indicate that a combination of MAPK pathway inhibitors with ETBR antagonists could have a synergistically beneficial effect in melanoma patients with hyperactivated MAPK signaling pathways.

Mxi-2 Dependent Regulation of p53 in Prostate Cancer.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Endothelin-1 (ET-1) is overexpressed in many types of cancer, inhibiting the release of the microRNA 15a (miR-15a) and inducing the production of Mxi-2. Our aim was to identify a molecular complex regulating p53 activity in prostate cancer (PCa). MATERIALS AND METHODS: DU145 cells were treated with ET-1, MAPK p38 inhibitor, Endothelin A receptor inhibitor (ETAR inhibitor) and Endothelin B receptor inhibitor (ETBR inhibitor). Extracts were analysed using Western Blot, immunoprecipitation and qRT-PCR. Furthermore, prostate cancer patient samples were analysed using qRT-PCR and ELISA. RESULTS: The hypothesised molecular complex was identified, with miR-15a, microRNA 1285 (miR-1285) and Mxi-2 levels up-regulated in patients in relation to increasing aggressiveness of PCa. CONCLUSION: A complex composed of Argonaut 2 (Ago2)/Mxi-2/miR-1285 is involved in PCa. The expression of Mxi-2 correlates with increasing PCa aggressiveness and might be used as a non-invasive marker for the diagnosis and progression of PCa.

A high affinity nanobody against endothelin receptor type B: a new approach to the treatment of melanoma.

The aim of the study was to produce a single-domain antibody (nanobody) specific for endothelin receptor type B (EDNRB) which has high expression in melanoma. Cultured human melanoma cells were used as antigens to immunize alpacas. After antibody generation was verified in alpaca serum, total RNA was extracted from alpaca lymphocytes and the target VHH fragment was amplified by two-step PCR, cloned in the pCANTAB5E phagemid vector, and used to transform Escherichia coli TG1 cells to obtain a phage-display nanobody library, which was enriched by panning. The results indicated successful construction of a phage-display anti-human melanoma A375 nanobodies library with a size of 1.2 × 108/ml and insertion rate of 80%. After screening, eight positive clones of anti-EDNRB nanobodies were used to infect E. coli HB2151 for production of soluble nanobodies, which were identified by ELISA. Finally, we obtained a high-affinity anti-EDNRB nanobody, which consisted of 119 amino acids (molecular weight: 12.97 kDa) with 22 amino acids in CDR3 and had good affinity in vitro. The results suggest that the nanobody may be potentially used for the treatment of human melanoma.

Angiopoietin-1/Tie-2 signal after focal traumatic brain injury is potentiated by BQ788, an ETB receptor antagonist, in the mouse cerebrum: Involvement in recovery of blood-brain barrier function.

Angiopoietin-1, an angiogenic factor, stabilizes brain microvessels through Tie-2 receptor tyrosine kinase. In traumatic brain injury, blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption is an aggravating factor that induces brain edema and neuroinflammation. We previously showed that BQ788, an endothelin ETB receptor antagonist, promoted recovery of BBB function after lateral fluid percussion injury (FPI) in mice. To clarify the mechanisms underlying BBB recovery mediated by BQ788, we examined the involvements of the angiopoietin-1/Tie-2 signal. When angiopoietin-1 production and Tie-2 phosphorylation were assayed by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and western blotting, increased angiopoietin-1 production and Tie-2 phosphorylation were observed in 7-10 days after FPI in the mouse cerebrum, whereas no significant effects were obtained at 5 days. When BQ788 (15 nmol/day, i.c.v.) were administered in 2-5 days after FPI, increased angiopoietin-1 production and Tie-2 phosphorylation were observed. Immunohistochemical observations showed that brain microvessels and astrocytes contained angiopoietin-1 after FPI, and brain microvessels also contained phosphorylated Tie-2. Treatment with endothelin-1 (100 nM) decreased angiopoietin-1 production in cultured astrocytes and the effect was inhibited by BQ788 (1 µM). Five days after FPI, increased extravasation of Evans blue dye accompanied by reduction in claudin-5, occludin, and zonula occludens-1 proteins were observed in mouse cerebrum while these effects of FPI were reduced by BQ788 and exogenous angiopoietin-1 (1 µg/day, i.c.v.). The effects of BQ788 were inhibited by co-administration of a Tie-2 kinase inhibitor (40 nmol/day, i.c.v.). These results suggest that BQ788 administration after traumatic brain injury promotes recovery of BBB function through activation of the angiopoietin-1/Tie-2 signal.

Selective ETA vs. dual ETA/B receptor blockade for the prevention of sunitinib-induced hypertension and albuminuria in WKY rats.

AIMS: Although effective in preventing tumour growth, angiogenesis inhibitors cause off-target effects including cardiovascular toxicity and renal injury, most likely via endothelin (ET)-1 up-regulation. ET-1 via stimulation of the ETA receptor has pro-hypertensive actions whereas stimulation of the ETB receptor can elicit both pro- or anti-hypertensive effects. In this study, our aim was to determine the efficacy of selective ETA vs. dual ETA/B receptor blockade for the prevention of angiogenesis inhibitor-induced hypertension and albuminuria. METHODS AND RESULTS: Male Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats were treated with vehicle, sunitinib (angiogenesis inhibitor; 14 mg/kg/day) alone or in combination with macitentan (ETA/B receptor antagonist; 30 mg/kg/day) or sitaxentan (selective ETA receptor antagonist; 30 or 100 mg/kg/day) for 8 days. Compared with vehicle, sunitinib treatment caused a rapid and sustained increase in mean arterial pressure of ∼25 mmHg. Co-treatment with macitentan or sitaxentan abolished the pressor response to sunitinib. Sunitinib did not induce endothelial dysfunction. However, it was associated with increased aortic, mesenteric, and renal oxidative stress, an effect that was absent in mesenteric arteries of the macitentan and sitaxentan co-treated groups. Albuminuria was greater in the sunitinib- than vehicle-treated group. Co-treatment with sitaxentan, but not macitentan, prevented this increase in albuminuria. Sunitinib treatment increased circulating and urinary prostacyclin levels and had no effect on thromboxane levels. These increases in prostacyclin were blunted by co-treatment with sitaxentan. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that both selective ETA and dual ETA/B receptor antagonism prevents sunitinib-induced hypertension, whereas sunitinib-induced albuminuria was only prevented by selective ETA receptor antagonism. In addition, our results uncover a role for prostacyclin in the development of these effects. In conclusion, selective ETA receptor antagonism is sufficient for the prevention of sunitinib-induced hypertension and renal injury.

Endothelin type B receptor promotes cofilin rod formation and dendritic loss in neurons by inducing oxidative stress and cofilin activation.

Endothelin-1 (ET-1) is a neuroactive peptide produced by neurons, reactive astrocytes, and endothelial cells in the brain. Elevated levels of ET-1 have been detected in the post-mortem brains of individuals with Alzheimer's disease (AD). We have previously demonstrated that overexpression of astrocytic ET-1 exacerbates memory deficits in aged mice or in APPK670/M671 mutant mice. However, the effects of ET-1 on neuronal dysfunction remain elusive. ET-1 has been reported to mediate superoxide formation in the vascular system via NADPH oxidase (NOX) and to regulate the actin cytoskeleton of cancer cell lines via the cofilin pathway. Interestingly, oxidative stress and cofilin activation were both reported to mediate one of the AD histopathologies, cofilin rod formation in neurons. This raises the possibility that ET-1 mediates neurodegeneration via oxidative stress- or cofilin activation-driven cofilin rod formation. Here, we demonstrate that exposure to 100 nm ET-1 or to a selective ET type B receptor (ETB) agonist (IRL1620) induces cofilin rod formation in dendrites of primary hippocampal neurons, accompanied by a loss of distal dendrites and a reduction in dendritic length. The 100 nm IRL1620 exposure induced superoxide formation and cofilin activation, which were abolished by pretreatment with a NOX inhibitor (5 µm VAS2870). Moreover, IRL1620-induced cofilin rod formation was partially abolished by pretreatment with a calcineurin inhibitor (100 nm FK506), which suppressed cofilin activation. In conclusion, our findings suggest a role for ETB in neurodegeneration by promoting cofilin rod formation and dendritic loss via NOX-driven superoxide formation and cofilin activation.

A dual blocker of endothelin A/B receptors mitigates hypertension but not renal dysfunction in a rat model of chronic kidney disease and sleep apnea.

Obstructive sleep apnea is characterized by recurrent episodes of pharyngeal collapse during sleep, resulting in intermittent hypoxia (IH), and is associated with a high incidence of hypertension and accelerated renal failure. In rodents, endothelin (ET)-1 contributes to IH-induced hypertension, and ET-1 levels inversely correlate with glomerular filtration rate in patients with end-stage chronic kidney disease (CKD). Therefore, we hypothesized that a dual ET receptor antagonist, macitentan (Actelion Pharmaceuticals), will attenuate and reverse hypertension and renal dysfunction in a rat model of combined IH and CKD. Male Sprague-Dawley rats received one of three diets (control, 0.2% adenine, and 0.2% adenine + 30 mg·kg-1·day-1 macitentan) for 2 wk followed by 2 wk of recovery diet. Rats were then exposed for 4 wk to air or IH (20 short exposures/h to 5% O2-5% CO2 7 h/day during sleep). Macitentan prevented the increases in mean arterial blood pressure caused by CKD, IH, and the combination of CKD + IH. However, macitentan did not improve kidney function, fibrosis, and inflammation. After CKD was established, rats were exposed to air or IH for 2 wk, and macitentan feeding continued for 2 more wk. Macitentan reversed the hypertension in IH, CKD, and CKD + IH groups without improving renal function. Our data suggest that macitentan could be an effective antihypertensive in patients with CKD and irreversible kidney damage as a way to protect the heart, brain, and eyes from elevated arterial pressure, but it does not reverse toxin-induced tubule atrophy.

Constriction of Retinal Venules to Endothelin-1: Obligatory Roles of ETA Receptors, Extracellular Calcium Entry, and Rho Kinase.

Purpose: Endothelin-1 (ET-1) is a potent vasoconstrictor peptide implicated in retinal venous pathologies such as diabetic retinopathy and retinal vein occlusion. However, underlying mechanisms contributing to venular constriction remain unknown. Thus, we examined the roles of ET-1 receptors, extracellular calcium (Ca2+), L-type voltage-operated calcium channels (L-VOCCs), Rho kinase (ROCK), and protein kinase C (PKC) in ET-1-induced constriction of retinal venules. Methods: Porcine retinal venules were isolated and pressurized for vasoreactivity study using videomicroscopic techniques. Protein and mRNA were analyzed using molecular tools. Results: Retinal venules developed basal tone and constricted concentration-dependently to ET-1. The ETA receptor (ETAR) antagonist BQ123 abolished venular constriction to ET-1, but ETB receptor (ETBR) antagonist BQ788 had no effect on vasoconstriction. The ETBR agonist sarafotoxin S6c did not elicit vasomotor activity. In the absence of extracellular Ca2+, venules lost basal tone and ET-1-induced constriction was nearly abolished. Although L-VOCC inhibitor nifedipine also reduced basal tone and blocked vasoconstriction to L-VOCC activator Bay K8644, constriction of venules to ET-1 remained. The ROCK inhibitor H-1152 but not PKC inhibitor Gö 6983 prevented ET-1-induced vasoconstriction. Protein and mRNA expressions of ETARs and ETBRs, along with ROCK1 and ROCK2 isoforms, were detected in retinal venules. Conclusions: Extracellular Ca2+ entry via L-VOCCs is essential for developing and maintaining basal tone of porcine retinal venules. ET-1 causes significant constriction of retinal venules by activating ETARs and extracellular Ca2+ entry independent of L-VOCCs. Activation of ROCK signaling, without involvement of PKC, appears to mediate venular constriction to ET-1 in the porcine retina.

Cardiac-specific knockout and pharmacological inhibition of Endothelin receptor type B lead to cardiac resistance to extreme hypoxia.

Oxygen plays a central role in cardiac energy metabolism. At high altitude where the ambient oxygen level is low, we found EDNRB is associated with human hypoxia adaptation. Our subsequent study in global heterozygous knockout mice (Ednrb-/+) revealed that cardiac function was conserved in these mice when exposed to extreme hypoxia. The major goal of this study was (i) to determine the functional role of cardiomyocyte EdnrB in maintaining cardiac function under hypoxic stress and (ii) to validate the phenotypes we detected in Ednrb-/+ mice using EDNRB blockers. Unlike the global knockouts, cardiac-specific heterozygote (EdnrBflox/+) and homozygote (EdnrBflox/flox) EdnrB knockout mice were phenotypically normal. When treated with graded low levels of oxygen (10% and 5% O2), both EdnrBflox/+ and EdnrBflox/flox were hypoxia tolerant. The cardiac indexes at 10% and 5% O2 for EdnrBflox/+ were significantly higher and lactate levels were significantly lower when compared to the cre-negative controls (P < 0.05). Simultaneously, mice treated with BQ-788 (EDNRB-specific blocker) had a significantly higher cardiac index (P < 0.005) and significantly lower lactate levels (P < 0.0001) than in control mice. A similar result was obtained with mice treated with Bosentan (non-specific). These data indicate that a lower level or complete lack of EdnrB in the cardiomyocytes significantly improves cardiac performance under extreme hypoxia, a novel role of cardiomyocyte EdnrB in the regulation of cardiac function. Furthermore, this rescue under extreme hypoxia can also be achieved using EDNRB-specific pharmacological agents, e.g., BQ-788. This systematically confirms, both genetically and pharmacologically, the protective role of a lower EDNRB under extreme hypoxia stress. KEY MESSAGES: Under normal condition, cardiomyocytes-specific EdnrB knockout mice, both heterozygote and homozygote, are phenotypically normal. Under hypoxic condition, a lower level or complete deletion of cardiomyocyte EdnrB conserves cardiac function by maintaining high cardiac index. Similarly, mice treated with both specific (BQ-788) and non-specific (Bosentan) EDNRB blockers are tolerant to hypoxia by maintaining better cardiac function. The oxygen perfusion under extreme hypoxia is better in the mice with lower EDNRB, as depicted by lower lactate level at 5% oxygen. Our current study systematically confirms, both genetically and pharmacologically, the protective role of a lower EDNRB under extreme hypoxia stress. Overall, it supports our hypothesis that studies on human hypoxia adaptation provide new insight to common disease pathogenesis and treatments.

Electroacupuncture induces antihyperalgesic effect through endothelin-B receptor in the chronic phase of a mouse model of complex regional pain syndrome type I.

Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) is a disorder that involves abnormal inflammation and nerve dysfunction frequently resistant to a broad range of treatments. Peripheral nerve stimulation with electroacupuncture (EA) has been widely used in different clinical conditions to control pain and inflammation; however, the use of EA in the treatment of CRPS is under investigation. In this study, we explore the effects of EA on hyperalgesia and edema induced in an animal model of chronic post-ischemia pain (CPIP model) and the possible involvement of endothelin receptor type B (ETB) in this effect. Female Swiss mice were subjected to 3 h hind paw ischemia/reperfusion CPIP model. EA treatment produced time-dependent inhibition of mechanical and cold hyperalgesia, as well as edema in CPIP mice. Peripheral administration (i.pl.) of BQ-788 (10 nmol), an ETB antagonist, prevented EA-induced antihyperalgesia while intrathecal administration prolonged EA's effect. Additionally, peripheral pre-treatment with sarafotoxin (SRTX S6c, 30 pmol, ETB agonist) increased EA anti-hyperalgesic effect. Furthermore, the expression of peripheral ETB receptors was increased after EA treatments, as measured by western blot. These results may suggest that EA's analgesic effect is synergic with ETB receptor activation in the periphery, as well as central (spinal cord) ETB receptor blockade. These data support the use of EA as a nonpharmacological approach for the management of CRPS-I, in an adjuvant manner to ETB receptor targeting drugs.

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) Induced Angiogenesis During Chicken Embryogenesis is Abolished by Combined ETA/ETB Receptor Blockade.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Angiogenesis plays a key role during embryonic development. The vascular endothelin (ET) system is involved in the regulation of angiogenesis. Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) could induce angiogenesis. The effects of ET blockers on baseline and LPS-stimulated angiogenesis during embryonic development remain unknown so far. METHODS: The blood vessel density (BVD) of chorioallantoic membranes (CAMs), which were treated with saline (control), LPS, and/or BQ123 and the ETB blocker BQ788, were quantified and analyzed using an IPP 6.0 image analysis program. Moreover, the expressions of ET-1, ET-2, ET3, ET receptor A (ETRA), ET receptor B (ETRB) and VEGFR2 mRNA during embryogenesis were analyzed by semi-quantitative RT-PCR. RESULTS: All components of the ET system are detectable during chicken embryogenesis. LPS increased angiogenesis substantially. This process was completely blocked by the treatment of a combination of the ETA receptor blockers-BQ123 and the ETB receptor blocker BQ788. This effect was accompanied by a decrease in ETRA, ETRB, and VEGFR2 gene expression. However, the baseline angiogenesis was not affected by combined ETA/ETB receptor blockade. CONCLUSION: During chicken embryogenesis, the LPS-stimulated angiogenesis, but not baseline angiogenesis, is sensitive to combined ETA/ETB receptor blockade.

Delayed Administration of BQ788, an ETB Antagonist, after Experimental Traumatic Brain Injury Promotes Recovery of Blood-Brain Barrier Function and a Reduction of Cerebral Edema in Mice.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is induced by immediate physical disruption of brain tissue, and causes death and disability. Studies on experimental TBI animal models show that disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) underlies brain edema and neuroinflammation during the delayed phase of TBI. In neurological disorders, endothelin-1 (ET-1) is involved in BBB dysfunction and brain edema. In this study, the effect of ET antagonists on BBB dysfunction and brain edema were examined in a mouse focal TBI model using lateral fluid percussion injury (FPI). ET-1 and ETB receptors were increased at 2-7 days after FPI, which was accompanied by extravasation of Evans blue (EB) and brain edema. Repeated intracerebroventricular administration of BQ788 (15 nmol/day), an ETB antagonist, from 2 days after FPI promoted recovery of EB extravasation and brain edema, while FR 139317, an ETA antagonist, had no effect. Delayed intravenous administration of BQ788 also promoted recovery from FPI-induced EB extravasation and brain edema. While FPI caused decreases in claudin-5, occludin, and zonula occludens-1 proteins, BQ788 reversed FPI-induced reductions of them. Immunohistochemical observation of the cerebrum after FPI showed that ETB receptors are predominantly expressed in glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive astrocytes. BQ788 reduced FPI-induced increases in GFAP-positive astrocytes. GFAP-positive astrocytes produced vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9). FPI-induced increases in VEGF-A and MMP-9 production were reversed by BQ788. These results suggest that ETB receptor antagonism during the delayed phase of focal TBI promotes recovery of BBB function and reduction of brain edema.

Endothelin-1 Decreases Excitability of the Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons via ETB Receptor.

Endothelin-1 (ET-1) has been demonstrated to be a pro-nociceptive as well as an anti-nociceptive agent. However, underlying molecular mechanisms for these pain modulatory actions remain unclear. In the present study, we evaluated the ability of ET-1 to alter the nociceptor excitability using a patch clamp technique in acutely dissociated rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. ET-1 produced an increase in threshold current to evoke an action potential (I threshold) and hyperpolarization of resting membrane potential (RMP) indicating decreased excitability of DRG neurons. I threshold increased from 0.25 ± 0.08 to 0.33 ± 0.07 nA and hyperpolarized RMP from -57.51 ± 1.70 to -67.41 ± 2.92 mV by ET-1 (100 nM). The hyperpolarizing effect of ET-1 appears to be orchestrated via modulation of membrane conductances, namely voltage-gated sodium current (I Na) and outward transient potassium current (I KT). ET-1, 30 and 100 nM, decreased the peak I Na by 41.3 ± 6.8 and 74 ± 15.2%, respectively. Additionally, ET-1 (100 nM) significantly potentiated the transient component (I KT) of the potassium currents. ET-1-induced effects were largely attenuated by BQ-788, a selective ETBR blocker. However, a selective ETAR blocker BQ-123 did not alter the effects of ET-1. A selective ETBR agonist, IRL-1620, mimicked the effect of ET-1 on I Na in a concentration-dependent manner (IC50 159.5 ± 92.6 µM). In conclusion, our results demonstrate that ET-1 hyperpolarizes nociceptors by blocking I Na and potentiating I KT through selective activation of ETBR, which may represent one of the underlying mechanisms for reported anti-nociceptive effects of ET-1.

Role of endothelin-1 and its receptors, ETA and ETB, in the survival of human vascular endothelial cells.

Our previous work showed the presence of endothelin-1 (ET-1) receptors, ETA and ETB, in human vascular endothelial cells (hVECs). In this study, we wanted to verify whether ET-1 plays a role in the survival of hVECs via the activation of its receptors ETA and (or) ETB (ETAR and ETBR, respectively). Our results showed that treatment of hVECs with ET-1 prevented apoptosis induced by genistein, an effect that was mimicked by treatment with ETBR-specific agonist IRL1620. Furthermore, blockade of ETBR with the selective ETBR antagonist A-192621 prevented the anti-apoptotic effect of ET-1 in hVECs. However, activation of ETA receptor alone did not seem to contribute to the anti-apoptotic effect of ET-1. In addition, the anti-apoptotic effect of ETBR was found to be associated with caspase 3 inhibition and does not depend on the density of this type of receptor. In conclusion, our results showed that ET-1 possesses an anti-apoptotic effect in hVECs and that this effect is mediated, to a great extent, via the activation of ETBR. This study revealed a new role for ETBR in the survival of hVECs.

Na+ /K+ -ATPase coupled to endothelin receptor type B stimulates peripheral nerve regeneration via lactate signalling.

We have recently demonstrated that endothelin (ET) is functionally coupled to Nax , a Na+ concentration-sensitive Na+ channel for lactate release via ET receptor type B (ETB R) and is involved in peripheral nerve regeneration in a sciatic nerve transection-regeneration mouse model. Nax is known to interact directly with Na+ /K+ -ATPase, leading to lactate production in the brain. To investigate the role of Na+ /K+ -ATPase in peripheral nerve regeneration, in this study, we applied ouabain, a Na+ /K+ -ATPase inhibitor, to the cut site for 4 weeks with an osmotic pump. While functional recovery and nerve reinnervation to the toe started at 5 weeks after axotomy and were completed by 7 weeks, ouabain delayed them by 2 weeks. The delay by ouabain was improved by lactate, and its effect was blocked by α-cyano-4-hydroxy-cinnamic acid (CIN), a broad monocarboxylate transporter (MCT) inhibitor. In primary cultures of dorsal root ganglia, neurite outgrowth of neurons and lactate release into the culture medium was inhibited by ouabain. Conversely, lactate enhanced the neurite outgrowth, which was blocked by CIN, but not by AR-C155858, a MCT1/2-selective inhibitor. ET-1 and ET-3 increased neurite outgrowth of neurons, which was attenuated by an ETB R antagonist, ouabain and 2 protein kinase C inhibitors. Taken together with the finding that ETB R was expressed in Schwann cells, these results demonstrate that ET enhanced neurite outgrowth of neurons mediated by Na+ /K+ -ATPase via ETB R in Schwann cells. This study suggests that Na+ /K+ -ATPase coupled to the ET-ETB R system plays a critical role in peripheral nerve regeneration via lactate signalling.

A novel antihypertension agent, sargachromenol D from marine brown algae, Sargassum siliquastrum, exerts dual action as an L-type Ca2+ channel blocker and endothelin A/B2 receptor antagonist.

We isolated the novel vasoactive marine natural products, (5E,10E)-14-hydroxy-2,6,10-trimethylpentadeca-5,10-dien-4-one (4) and sargachromenol D (5), from Sargassum siliquastrum collected from the coast of the East Sea in South Korea by using activity-guided HPLC purification. The compounds effectively dilated depolarization (50mMK+)-induced basilar artery contraction with EC50 values of 3.52±0.42 and 1.62±0.63µM, respectively, but only sargachromenol D (5) showed a vasodilatory effect on endothelin-1 (ET-1)-induced basilar artery contraction (EC50=9.8±0.6µM). These results indicated that sargachromenol D (5) could act as a dual antagonist of l-type Ca2+ channel and endothelin A/B2 receptors. Moreover, sargachromenol D (5) lowered blood pressure in spontaneous hypertensive rats (SHRs) 2h after oral treatment at a dose of 80mg/kg dose and the effect was maintained for 24h. Based on our ex vivo and in vivo experiments, we propose that sargachromenol D (5) is a strong candidate for the treatment of hypertension that is not controlled by conventional drugs, in particular, severe-, type II diabetes-, salt-sensitive, and metabolic disease-induced hypertension.

Physiological role of endothelin-1 in flow-mediated vasodilatation in humans and impact of cardiovascular risk factors.

OBJECTIVES: The current study addressed the hypothesis that the local decrease in endothelin-1 (ET-1) bioavailability during sustained flow increases contributes to endothelium-dependent, flow-mediated dilatation (FMD) of conduit arteries and is altered in presence of cardiovascular risk factors. METHODS AND RESULTS: In nine young healthy individuals, the decrease in local ET-1 plasma levels and radial artery FMD in response to hand skin heating (from 34 to 44 °C) was not affected by endothelin type A (ETA) receptor blockade, achieved using the brachial infusion of BQ-123 (100 nmol/min per l of forearm), as compared with physiological saline (0.9% NaCl) infusion. In contrast, endothelin type B (ETB) receptor blockade with BQ-788 (10 nmol/min per l) suppressed the decrease in plasma ET-1 during heating and reduced FMD, without altering nitric oxide release. The coinfusion of BQ-123 did not affect the inhibitory effect of ETB receptor blockade on the decrease in ET-1 plasma levels during heating but prevented the reduction in FMD. Basal radial artery parameters, systemic hemodynamics, and endothelium-independent dilatation to glyceryl trinitrate were not modified by ETA and/or ETB blockade. In a general population of 40 participants without treatment or major cardiovascular diseases, including the nine healthy individuals, the reduction in endothelin-1 level during heating was correlated with FMD (r = -0.55, P < 0.001) and decreased with increased age (r = 0.49, P = 0.001), mean arterial blood pressure (r = 0.48, P = 0.002), and total cholesterol level (r = 0.37, P = 0.024). CONCLUSION: The uptake of endothelin-1 by ETB receptors contributes to conduit artery FMD, preventing its vasoconstrictor action mediated by ETA receptors. The alteration of this mechanism by cardiovascular risk factors may contribute to endothelial dysfunction.