Impact of APOE ε4 and ε2 on plasma neurofilament light chain and cognition in autosomal dominant Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND: Apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotypes have been suggested to influence cognitive impairment and clinical onset in presenilin-1 (PSEN1) E280A carriers for autosomal dominant Alzheimer's disease (ADAD). Less is known about their impact on the trajectory of biomarker changes. Neurofilament light chain (NfL), a marker of neurodegeneration, begins to accumulate in plasma about 20 years prior to the clinical onset of ADAD. In this study we investigated the impact of APOE ε4 and ε2 variants on age-related plasma NfL increases and cognition in PSEN1 E280A mutation carriers. METHODS: We analyzed cross-sectional data from PSEN1 E280A mutation carriers and non-carriers recruited from the Alzheimer's Prevention Initiative Registry of ADAD. All participants over 18 years with available APOE genotype, plasma NfL, and neuropsychological evaluation were included in this study. APOE genotypes and plasma NfL concentrations were characterized for each participant. Cubic spline models using a Hamiltonian Markov chain Monte Carlo method were used to characterize the respective impact of at least one APOE ε4 or ε2 allele on age-related log-transformed plasma NfL increases. Linear regression models were estimated to explore the impact of APOE ε4 and ε2 variants and plasma NfL on a composite cognitive test score in the ADAD mutation carrier and non-carrier groups. RESULTS: Analyses included 788 PSEN1 E280A mutation carriers (169 APOE ε4 + , 114 ε2 +) and 650 mutation non-carriers (165 APOE ε4 + , 80 ε2 +), aged 18-75 years. APOE ε4 allele carriers were distinguished from ε4 non-carriers by greater age-related NfL elevations in the ADAD mutation carrier group, beginning about three years after the mutation carriers' estimated median age at mild cognitive impairment onset. APOE ε2 allele carriers had lower plasma NfL concentrations than ε2 non-carriers in both the ADAD mutation carrier and non-carrier groups, unrelated to age, and an attenuated relationship between higher NfL levels on cognitive decline in the ADAD mutation carrier group. CONCLUSIONS: APOE ε4 accelerates age-related plasma NfL increases and APOE ε2 attenuates the relationship between higher plasma NfL levels and cognitive decline in ADAD. NfL may be a useful biomarker to assess clinical efficacy of APOE-modifying drugs with the potential to help in the treatment and prevention of ADAD.

Investigating Effects of Plasma Apolipoprotein E on Ischemic Heart Disease Using Mendelian Randomization Study.

BACKGROUND: Observationally plasma apolipoprotein E (apoE) is positively associated with ischemic heart disease (IHD). A Mendelian randomization (MR) study suggesting apoE is unrelated to cardiovascular mortality did not consider specific isoforms. We used MR to obtain estimates of plasma apoE2, apoE3 and apoE4 on IHD, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, triglycerides and apolipoprotein B (apoB). METHODS: We obtained independent genetic instruments from proteome genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and applied them to large outcome GWAS. We used univariable MR to assess the role of each isoform and multivariable MR to assess direct effects. RESULTS: In univariable MR, apoE4 was positively associated with IHD (odds ratio (OR) 1.05, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.01 to 1.09), but apoE2 and apoE3 were less clearly associated. Using multivariable MR an association of apoE2 with IHD (OR 1.16, 95% CI 0.98 to 1.38) could not be excluded, and associations of apoE3 and apoE4 with IHD were not obvious. In univariable MR, apoE2 and apoE4 were positively associated with apoB, and a positive association of apoE2 with LDL cholesterol could not be excluded. Using multivariable MR apoE2 was positively associated with LDL cholesterol, and associations with apoB could not be excluded. After adjusting for apoB, no direct effects of apoE isoforms on IHD were evident. CONCLUSIONS: Plasma apoE2 and apoE4 may play a role in lipid modulation and IHD. Whether apoE could be a potential therapeutic target requires further clarification when larger genetic studies of apoE isoforms are available.

Metabolic syndrome and the plasma proteome: from association to causation.

BACKGROUND: The metabolic syndrome (MetS), defined by the simultaneous clustering of cardio-metabolic risk factors, is a significant worldwide public health burden with an estimated 25% prevalence worldwide. The pathogenesis of MetS is not entirely clear and the use of molecular level data could help uncover common pathogenic pathways behind the observed clustering. METHODS: Using a highly multiplexed aptamer-based affinity proteomics platform, we examined associations between plasma proteins and prevalent and incident MetS in the KORA cohort (n = 998) and replicated our results for prevalent MetS in the HUNT3 study (n = 923). We applied logistic regression models adjusted for age, sex, smoking status, and physical activity. We used the bootstrap ranking algorithm of least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) to select a predictive model from the incident MetS associated proteins and used area under the curve (AUC) to assess its performance. Finally, we investigated the causal effect of the replicated proteins on MetS using two-sample Mendelian randomization. RESULTS: Prevalent MetS was associated with 116 proteins, of which 53 replicated in HUNT. These included previously reported proteins like leptin, and new proteins like NTR domain-containing protein 2 and endoplasmic reticulum protein 29. Incident MetS was associated with 14 proteins in KORA, of which 13 overlap the prevalent MetS associated proteins with soluble advanced glycosylation end product-specific receptor (sRAGE) being unique to incident MetS. The LASSO selected an eight-protein predictive model with an (AUC = 0.75; 95% CI = 0.71-0.79) in KORA. Mendelian randomization suggested causal effects of three proteins on MetS, namely apolipoprotein E2 (APOE2) (Wald-Ratio = - 0.12, Wald-p = 3.63e-13), apolipoprotein B (APOB) (Wald-Ratio = - 0.09, Wald-p = 2.54e-04) and proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase receptor (RET) (Wald-Ratio = 0.10, Wald-p = 5.40e-04). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings offer new insights into the plasma proteome underlying MetS and identify new protein associations. We reveal possible casual effects of APOE2, APOB and RET on MetS. Our results highlight protein candidates that could potentially serve as targets for prevention and therapy.

Triglycerides, hypertension, and smoking predict cardiovascular disease in dysbetalipoproteinemia.

BACKGROUND: Dysbetalipoproteinemia (DBL) is an autosomal recessive lipid disorder associated with a reduced clearance of remnant lipoproteins and is associated with an increased cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. The genetic cause of DBL is apoE2 homozygosity in 90% of cases. However, a second metabolic hit must be present to precipitate the disease. However, no study has investigated the predictors of CVD, peripheral artery disease and coronary artery disease in a large cohort of patients with DBL. OBJECTIVE: The objectives of this study were to describe the clinical characteristics of a DBL cohort and to identify the predictors of CVD, peripheral artery disease, and coronary artery disease in this population. METHODS: The inclusion criteria included age ≥ 18 years, apoE2/E2, triglycerides (TG) > 135 mg/dL and VLDL-C/plasma TG ratio > 0.30. RESULTS: We studied 221 adult DBL patients, of which 51 (23%) had a history of CVD. We identified 3 independent predictors of CVD, namely hypertension (OR 5.68, 95% CI 2.13-15.16, P = .001), pack year of smoking (OR 1.03, 95% CI 1.01-1.05, P = .01) and TG tertile (OR 1.82, 95% CI 1.09-3.05, P = .02). The CVD prevalence was 51% in patients with hypertension and 18% in those without hypertension (P = .00001), and 30% in the highest TG tertile vs 15% in the lowest tertile (P = .04). Similarly, the CVD prevalence was higher in heavy smokers compared with nonsmokers (36% vs 13%, P = .006). CONCLUSION: Hypertension, smoking, and TG are independently associated with CVD risk in patients with DBL. Aggressive treatment should be initiated in patients with DBL because of the increased risk of CVD.

A case of apolipoprotein E Toyonaka and homozygous apolipoprotein E2/2 showing non-immune membranous nephropathy-like glomerular lesions with foamy changes.

A 47-year-old Japanese man with mild proteinuria was treated with an ACE inhibitor and antiplatelet agent for 7 years. However, urinary protein levels increased and renal biopsy was performed. Eight out of 20 glomeruli showed global or segmental sclerosis with foamy changes or bubbles, but with a different appearance to typical foam cells or lipoprotein thrombi. "Spike" formation, as observed in membranous nephropathy (MN), was segmentally detected in methenamine silver-stained sections. In an immunofluorescence study, weak linear patterns for IgG and scanty deposits for C3 were observed in glomeruli, but were not specific for immunogenetic MN. An electron microscopy study showed highly dense deposits in the subepithelial, subendothelial, and mesangial areas, in which microbubbles appeared under a higher magnification. Since this case exhibited hypertriglyceridemia and cholesterolemia with high serum apolipoprotein E (apoE) clinically and homozygous apoE2/2 by apoE phenotype and genotype analyses, apoE2 homozygote glomerulopathy was diagnosed and various lipid-lowering agents, e.g., probucol, fenofibrate, and ezetimibe, were administered. However, renal dysfunction gradually developed and peritoneal dialysis was initiated 11 years after the diagnosis. ApoE Toyonaka (Ser197Cys) and homozygous E2/2 were recently identified by direct DNA sequencing. Therefore, non-immune MN-like lesions may develop with the combination of these apoE mutations.

Kinetics of plasma apolipoprotein E isoforms by LC-MS/MS: a pilot study.

Human apoE exhibits three major isoforms (apoE2, apoE3, and apoE4) corresponding to polymorphism in the APOE gene. Total plasma apoE concentrations are closely related to these isoforms, but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. We aimed to describe the kinetics of apoE individual isoforms to explore the mechanisms for variable total apoE plasma concentrations. We used LC-MS/MS to discriminate between isoforms by identifying specific peptide sequences in subjects (three E2/E3, three E3/E3, and three E3/E4 phenotypes) who received a primed constant infusion of 2H3-leucine for 14 h. apoE concentrations and leucine enrichments were measured hourly in plasma. Concentrations of apoE2 were higher than apoE3, and concentrations of apoE4 were lower than apoE3. There was no difference between apoE3 and apoE4 catabolic rates and between apoE2 and apoE3 production rates (PRs), but apoE2 catabolic rates and apoE4 PRs were lower. The mechanisms leading to the difference in total plasma apoE concentrations are therefore related to contrasted kinetics of the isoforms. Production or catabolic rates are differently affected according to the specific isoforms. On these grounds, studies on the regulation of the involved biochemical pathways and the impact of pathological environments are now warranted.

Roles of high apolipoprotein E blood levels and HDL in development of familial dysbetalipoproteinemia in ε2ε2 subjects.

OBJECTIVE: Familial dysbetalipoproteinemia (FD) or Type III hyperlipoproteinemia is a mixed hyperlipidemia closely associated with the ε2ε2 genotype of the common APOE polymorphism although not all homozygotes progress to FD. Unlike the polymorphism, few studies explore effects of apolipoprotein E (apoE) blood levels on FD development. Likewise, despite the known apoE2 lipoprotein binding preference for high-density lipoprotein (HDL); little work exists exploring HDL in FD. Accordingly, this study was undertaken to investigate potential roles in FD development for apoE and HDL. Additionally, insulin and Homeostatic Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR) were investigated in view of reports linking insulin resistance to FD. METHODS: APOE genotyping and levels of apoE, apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I), apolipoprotein A-II (apoA-II), insulin, HOMA-IR, lipids, and NMR lipoprotein analysis were determined in a cohort of healthy individuals (N=7169). A lipid-based algorithm identified FD in 24 of 52 e2e2 subjects. Logistic regression modeling assessed associations of FD development with measured variables. RESULTS: Univariate models revealed associations with FD significant and positive for apoE, apoA-II/apoA-I, apoA-I/HDL-C, apoA-II/HDL-C, and HOMA-IR. For HDL-C, association was significant but inverse. Results of multivariable models containing apoE with single parameters added revealed statistical significance only for the apoA-II/HDL-C ratio (OR 10.52, 95%CI 1.17-94.79, p=0.036) concurrent with significance for apoE (OR 2.21, 95%CI 1.06-4.65, p=0.035). Interaction was not demonstrated (p=0.36). NMR results revealed for FD versus nonFD subjects generally higher levels of VLDL and small HDL and for IDL few differences. CONCLUSION: High apoE and high apoA-II/HDL-C independently associate with FD development in ε2ε2 individuals.

Redox status of serum apolipoprotein E and its impact on HDL cholesterol levels.

BACKGROUND: Apolipoprotein E (apoE) is closely involved in the pathogenesis of apoE-related diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease and cardiovascular disease. The redox modulation of cysteine-thiols in a protein is involved in various pathophysiological regulations; however, that of apoE has not been studied in detail. Herein, we devised an analytical method to determine the redox status of serum apoE and assessed its relation to serum cholesterol levels and apoE phenotype. METHODS: The present method was based on a band shift assay, using a photocleavable maleimide-conjugated polyethylene glycol. RESULTS: The basic characteristics of the present method were found to be satisfactory to determine the redox status of serum apoE quantitatively. Serum apoE was separated into its reduced-form (r-), non-reduced-form (nr-), apoE-AII complex, and homodimer using this method. R-apoE could be detected as a 40-kDa band, whereas nr-apoE remained as monomeric apoE. R-apoE displayed a preference for VLDL; however, the levels showed the correlation with HDL-cholesterol levels (p<0.005). Redox status of serum apoE was significantly different among apoE phenotypes. The quantitative ratios of nr-apoE to total apoE in serum from subjects with apoE4/E3 were higher than in serum from subjects with apoE3/E3 (p<0.0001) and apoE3/E2 (p<0.001). CONCLUSION: The redox status of serum apoE might be related to the synthesis of HDL. The information concerning the redox status of serum apoE provided by the present method may be a potent indicator to evaluate various apoE-related diseases.

Promoter Variation and Expression Levels of Inflammatory Genes IL1A, IL1B, IL6 and TNF in Blood of Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3 (SCA3) Patients.

Age at onset in spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3/MJD) is incompletely explained by the size of the CAG tract at the ATXN3 gene, implying the existence of genetic modifiers. A role of inflammation in SCA3 has been postulated, involving altered cytokines levels; promoter variants leading to alterations in cytokines expression could influence onset. Using blood from 86 SCA3 patients and 106 controls, this work aimed to analyse promoter variation of four cytokines (IL1A, IL1B, IL6 and TNF) and to investigate the association between variants detected and their transcript levels, evaluated by quantitative PCR. Moreover, the effect of APOE isoforms, known to modulate cytokines, was investigated. Correlations between cytokine variants and onset were tested; the cumulative modifier effects of cytokines and APOE were analysed. Patients carrying the IL6*C allele had a significant earlier onset (4 years in average) than patients carrying the G allele, in agreement with lower mRNA levels produced by IL6*C carriers. The presence of APOE*ɛ2 allele seems to anticipate onset in average 10 years in patients carrying the IL6*C allele; a larger number of patients will be needed to confirm this result. These results highlight the pertinence of conducting further research on the role of cytokines as SCA3 modulators, pointing to the presence of shared mechanisms involving IL6 and APOE.

Development of new quantitative mass spectrometry and semi-automatic isofocusing methods for the determination of Apolipoprotein E typing.

BACKGROUND: Apolipoprotein E (Apo E) is a 36 Kda glycoprotein involved in lipid transport. It exists in 3 major isoforms: E2, E3 and E4. ApoE status is known to be a major risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer's and cardiovascular diseases. Genotyping is commonly used to obtain ApoE status but can show technical issues with ambiguous determinations. Phenotyping can be an alternative, not requiring genetic material. We evaluated the ability to accurately type ApoE isoforms by 2 phenotyping tests in comparison with genotyping. METHODS: Two phenotyping techniques were used: (1) LC-MS/MS detection of 4 ApoE specific peptides (6490 Agilent triple quadripole): After its denaturation, serum was either reduced and alkylated, or only diluted, and then trypsin digested. Before analysis, desalting, evaporation and resuspension were performed. (2) Isoelectric focusing and immunoprecipitation: serum samples were neuraminidase digested, delipidated and electrophoresed on Hydragel ApoE (Sebia agarose gel) using Hydrasys 2 Scan instrument (Sebia, Lisses, France). ApoE isoforms bands were directly immunofixed in the gel using a polyclonal anti human ApoE antibody. Then, incubation of the gel with HRP secondary antibody followed by TTF1/TTF2 substrate allowed the visualization of ApoE bands. The results of the two techniques were compared to genotyping. RESULTS: Sera from 35 patients previously genotyped were analyzed with the 2 phenotyping techniques. 100% concordance between both phenotyping assays was obtained for the tested phenotypes (E2/E2, E2/E3, E2/E4, E3/E3, E3/E4, E4/E4). When compared to genotyping, 3 samples were discordant. After reanalyzing them by both phenotyping tests and DNA sequencing, 2/3 discrepancies were confirmed. Those can be explained by variants or rare ApoE alleles or by unidentified technical issues. 102 additional samples were then tested on LC-MS/MS only and compared to genotyping. The data showed 100% concordance. CONCLUSION: Our 2 phenotyping methods represent a valuable alternative to genotyping. LC-MS/MS has the advantage of being fully specific, with identification of the different isoforms and can be considered as a reference method. Sebia isofocusing technique was concordant with LC-MS/MS. Plus, it is a rapid, semi-automated assay that can be easily implemented in clinical laboratories.

Frequencies of apolipoprotein E alleles in depressed patients undergoing hemodialysis--a case-control study.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the relation between the frequencies of apolipoprotein E (ApoE) alleles and the occurrence of depression in patients undergoing hemodialysis in a Chinese population. METHODS: We examined the ApoE alleles in a sample of 288 subjects: 72 patients with depression under hemodialysis, 74 patients without depression under hemodialysis, 75 patients with depression under nondialytic treatment and 67 patients without depression under nondialytic treatment. The depression state was assessed using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) scale. Associations between the occurrence of depression and the frequencies of ApoE alleles were examined using multinomial logistic regression models with adjustment of relevant covariates. Information about sociodemographics, clinical data, vascular risk factors and cognitive function was also collected and evaluated. RESULTS: The frequencies of ApoE-ɛ2 were significantly different between depressed and non-depressed patients irrespective of dialysis (p < 0.05), but no significant difference was found in the frequencies of ApoE-ɛ4 (p > 0.05). Serum ApoE levels were significantly different between depressed and non-depressed patients in the whole sample (p < 0.05). Multinomial logistic regression models showed significant association between the frequency of ApoE-ɛ2 and the occurrence of depression in the Chinese population after control of relevant covariates, including age, sex, educational level, history of smoking and drinking, vascular risk factors and cognitive function. CONCLUSIONS: No association between the frequency of ApoE-ɛ4 and the occurrence of depression was found in patients undergoing hemodialysis. Further research is needed to find out if ApoE-ɛ2 acts as a protective factor in Chinese dialysis population since it might decrease the prevalence of depression and delay the onset age.

A high-protein diet is anti-steatotic and has no pro-inflammatory side effects in dyslipidaemic APOE2 knock-in mice.

High-protein (HP) diets are effective anti-steatotic treatment options for patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, but whether these diets also decrease steatosis in hyperlipidaemic conditions is not known. The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of a HP diet on hepatic steatosis and inflammation in hyperlipidaemic mice. Hyperlipidaemic male and female APOE2 knock-in (APOE2ki) mice were fed a semi-synthetic low-protein (LP) or HP diet in combination with a low-fat diet or a high-fat diet for 3 weeks. The HP diets reduced hepatic fat and cholesterol concentrations to 40-55 % of those induced by the corresponding LP diets and attenuated hepatic inflammation mildly. The VLDL-associated plasma cholesterol concentrations decreased to 60-80 %, but those of TAG increased 3-4-fold. APOE2-mediated restriction of fat import into the liver did not modify the effects of a HP diet previously observed in wild-type mice. Female APOE2ki mice exhibited a higher expression of lipogenic, cholesterol-synthesising, inflammatory and cell-stress genes than wild-type female or male APOE2ki mice, but a similar response to HP diets. Low Apob expression and unchanged plasma APOB100 concentrations suggest that HP diets increase the plasma concentrations of TAG by slowing their clearance. The decrease in plasma leptin and hepatic fat and glycogen concentrations and the increase in fatty acid-oxidising gene and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1 protein expression suggest a HP diet-mediated increase in mitochondrial metabolism. In conclusion, a HP diet reduces hepatic lipid content in dyslipidaemic mice and lowers the activation status of inflammatory cells in the liver.

Total apolipoprotein E levels and specific isoform composition in cerebrospinal fluid and plasma from Alzheimer's disease patients and controls.

The apolipoprotein E (ApoE) ε4 allele is the strongest risk factor of sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD), however, the fluid concentrations of ApoE and its different isoforms (ApoE2, ApoE3 and ApoE4) in AD patients and among APOE genotypes (APOE ε2, ε3, ε4) remain controversial. Using a novel mass spectrometry-based method, we quantified total ApoE and specific ApoE isoform concentrations and potential associations with age, cognitive status, cholesterol levels and established AD biomarkers in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from AD patients versus non-AD individuals with different APOE genotypes. We also investigated plasma total ApoE and ApoE isoform composition in a subset of these individuals. In total n = 43 AD and n = 43 non-AD subjects were included. We found that CSF and plasma total ApoE levels did not correlate with age or cognitive status and did not differ between AD and non-AD subjects deeming ApoE as an unfit diagnostic marker for AD. Also, whereas CSF ApoE levels did not vary between APOE genotypes APOE ε4 carriers exhibited significantly decreased plasma ApoE levels attributed to a specific decrease in the ApoE4 isoform concentrations. CSF total ApoE concentrations were positively associated with CSF, total tau, tau phosphorylated at Thr181 and Aß1-42 of which the latter association was weaker and only present in APOE ε4 carriers indicating a differential involvement of ApoE in tau versus Aß-linked neuropathological processes. Future studies need to elucidate whether the observed plasma ApoE4 deficiency is a life-long condition in APOE ɛ4 carriers and whether this decrease in plasma ApoE predisposes APOE ɛ4 carriers to AD.

Apolipoprotein E-low density lipoprotein receptor interaction affects spatial memory retention and brain ApoE levels in an isoform-dependent manner.

Human apolipoprotein E (apoE) exists in three isoforms: apoE2, apoE3 and apoE4. APOE ε4 is a major genetic risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). ApoE mediates cholesterol metabolism by binding various receptors. The low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) has a high affinity for apoE, and is the only member of its receptor family to demonstrate an apoE isoform specific binding affinity (E4>E3>>E2). Evidence suggests that a functional interaction between apoE and LDLR influences the risk of CVD and AD. We hypothesize that the differential cognitive effects of the apoE isoforms are a direct result of their varying interactions with LDLR. To test this hypothesis, we have employed transgenic mice that express human apoE2, apoE3, or apoE4, and either human LDLR (hLDLR) or no LDLR (LDLR(-/-)). Our results show that plasma and brain apoE levels, cortical cholesterol, and spatial memory are all regulated by isoform-dependent interactions between apoE and LDLR. Conversely, both anxiety-like behavior and cued associative memory are strongly influenced by APOE genotype, but these processes appear to occur via an LDLR-independent mechanism. Both the lack of LDLR and the interaction between E4 and the LDLR were associated with significant impairments in the retention of long term spatial memory. Finally, levels of hippocampal apoE correlate with long term spatial memory retention in mice with human LDLR. In summary, we demonstrate that the apoE-LDLR interaction affects regional brain apoE levels, brain cholesterol, and cognitive function in an apoE isoform-dependent manner.

Hereditary features, treatment, and prognosis of the lipoprotein glomerulopathy in patients with the APOE Kyoto mutation.

Lipoprotein glomerulopathy is a rare inherited renal disease, caused by mutation of the APOE gene, characterized by proteinuria and nephrotic syndrome with elevated serum apoE. Since its treatment and outcome are unknown, we retrospectively studied 35 patients within 31 unrelated Han families with biopsy-proven lipoprotein glomerulopathy residing in the same county in southwest China. DNA sequencing detected the APOE Kyoto mutation (p. Arg25Cys) in all patients and 28 asymptomatic relatives. All shared the same ɛ3 allele. The patients presented with proteinuria, higher total triglyceride, and serum apoE levels relative to non-carriers. The serum apoE and triglyceride levels of asymptomatic carriers were between those of the patients and non-carriers. Sixteen patients received fenofibrate treatment for over 12 months. Six reached complete remission (proteinuria under 0.3 g/day with stable serum creatinine) with intensive control of their lipid profile (normalized serum apoE and triglycerides under 100 mg/dl). Eight reached partial remission. At 3 years of follow-up, patients treated with fenofibrate had superior survival and stable renal function. Thus, fenofibrate can induce lipoprotein glomerulopathy remission and the fibrate effects depend on the degree of lipid control and baseline proteinuria. Moreover, normalization of serum apoE and triglycerides can be used to judge the efficacy of lipid-lowering treatment.

Human apolipoprotein E isoforms differentially affect bone mass and turnover in vivo.

The primary role of apolipoprotein E (apoE) is to mediate the cellular uptake of lipoproteins. However, a new role for apoE as a regulator of bone metabolism in mice has recently been established. In contrast to mice, the human APOE gene is characterized by three common isoforms APOE ε2, ε3, and ε4 that result in different metabolic properties of the apoE isoforms, but it remains controversial whether the APOE polymorphism influences bone traits in humans. To clarify this, we investigated bone phenotypes of apoE knock-in (k.i.) mice, which express one human isoform each (apoE2 k.i., apoE3 k.i., apoE4 k.i.) in place of the mouse apoE. Analysis of 12-week-old female k.i. mice revealed increased levels of biochemical bone formation and resorption markers in apoE2 k.i. animals as compared to apoE3 k.i. and apoE4 k.i., with a reduced osteoprotegerin (OPG)/receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL) ratio in apoE2 k.i., indicating increased turnover with prevailing resorption in apoE2 k.i. Accordingly, histomorphometric and micro-computed tomography (µCT) analyses demonstrated significantly lower trabecular bone mass in apoE2 than in apoE3 and apoE4 k.i. animals, which was reflected by a significant reduction of lumbar vertebrae maximum force resistance. Unlike trabecular bone, femoral cortical thickness, and stability was not differentially affected by the apoE isoforms. To extend these observations to the human situation, plasma from middle-aged healthy men homozygous for ε2/ε2, ε3/ε3, and ε4/ε4 (n = 21, n = 80, n = 55, respectively) was analyzed with regard to bone turnover markers. In analogy to apoE2 k.i. mice, a lower OPG/RANKL ratio was observed in the serum of ε2/ε2 carriers as compared to ε3/ε3 and ε4/ε4 individuals (p = 0.02 for ε2/ε2 versus ε4/ε4). In conclusion, the current data strongly underline the general importance of apoE as a regulator of bone metabolism and identifies the APOE ε2 allele as a potential genetic risk factor for low trabecular bone mass and vertebral fractures in humans.

Apolipoprotein E gene polymorphisms are strong predictors of inflammation and dyslipidemia in rheumatoid arthritis.

OBJECTIVE: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA), a condition with a strong genetic etiology, is associated with excess cardiovascular disease (CVD). Dyslipidemia in RA may be driven by inflammation and genetic factors. Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) is important for the regulation of lipid levels and CVD risk and immune function in the general population. We compared the frequency of 2 ApoE single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in patients with RA and controls, and studied the relationship of ApoE genotypes with lipids and inflammation in RA. METHODS: A total of 387 patients with well-characterized RA and 420 non-RA controls were studied. Two ApoE SNP, rs7412 (ApoE2) and rs429358 (ApoE4), were identified. RESULTS: Genotypic (p = 0.908) and allelic (p = 0.894) frequencies did not differ between RA and controls. Within RA, the E2 allele was associated with the lowest and E4 allele with the highest levels of total cholesterol (p = 0.007), low-density lipoproteins (p = 0.004), and apolipoprotein B (p = 0.009). The E4 allele was also associated with lower C-reactive protein (p = 0.007), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (p = 0.001), and Disease Activity Score (p = 0.015) compared to the E3 allele. E2 or E4 alleles were not associated with CVD in RA, although a trend was observed (p = 0.074). CONCLUSION: The frequency of ApoE polymorphisms did not differ between patients with RA and controls. ApoE genotypes are strongly linked to inflammation and lipid levels in RA, raising interest in the prognostic implications of ApoE genotypes.

Volume of white matter hyperintensities in healthy adults: contribution of age, vascular risk factors, and inflammation-related genetic variants.

Aging is associated with appearance of white matter hyperintensities (WMH) on MRI scans. Vascular risk and inflammation, which increase with age, may contribute to white matter deterioration and proliferation of WMH. We investigated whether circulating biomarkers and genetic variants associated with elevated vascular risk and inflammation are associated with WMH volume in healthy adults (144 volunteers, 44-77 years of age). We examined association of WMH volume with age, sex, hypertension, circulating levels of total plasma homocysteine (tHcy), cholesterol (low-density lipoprotein), and C-reactive protein (CRP), and four polymorphisms related to vascular risk and inflammation: Apolipoprotein ε (ApoE ε2,3,4), Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme insertion/deletion (ACE I/D), methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) C677T, C-reactive protein (CRP)-286C>A>T, and interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) C-511T. We found that larger WMH volume was associated with advanced age, hypertension, and elevated levels of homocysteine and CRP but not with low-density lipoprotein levels. Homozygotes for IL-1ß-511T allele and carriers of CRP-286T allele that are associated with increased inflammatory response had larger WMH than the other allelic combinations. Carriers of the APOE ε2 allele had larger frontal WMH than ε3 homozygotes and ε4 carriers did. Thus, in healthy adults, who are free of neurological and vascular disease, genetic variants that promote inflammation and elevated levels of vascular risk biomarkers can contribute to brain abnormalities. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Imaging Brain Aging and Neurodegenerative disease.

Impact of bezafibrate and atorvastatin on lipoprotein subclass in patients with type III hyperlipoproteinemia: result from a crossover study.

BACKGROUND: We elucidated the difference between the effects of bezafibrate and atorvastatin in hypertriglyceridemia with apoE2/2 and 3/3. METHODS: An open randomized crossover study consisted of a 4-week treatment period with bezafibrate (400 mg daily) or atorvastatin (10 mg daily) and a 4-week wash-out period. RESULTS: Bezafibrate significantly decreased serum concentrations of triglyceride (apoE2/2, E3/3: -49.2%, -39.0%) and significantly increased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (+28.5%, +26.1%) in both apoE phenotypes but did not change serum concentrations of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. Atorvastatin significantly decreased serum concentrations of LDL cholesterol (-34.0%, -30.0%) and triglyceride (-27.6%, -25.8%) in both apoE phenotypes but did not change HDL cholesterol concentrations. Changes in cholesterol in lipoprotein subfractions were not different between apoE2/2 and E3/3. Bezafibrate changed cholesterol distribution from small- to large-sized LDL and from large- to small-sized HDL. On the other hand, atorvastatin decreased cholesterol in all apoB-containing lipoprotein subfractions but did not change any of the HDL subfractions. CONCLUSION: Bezafibrate and atorvastatin improve atherogenic dyslipidemia in considerably different ways. Extrapolating from the present data, we presume that the combination of these drugs may contribute to reduce LDL-C/HDL-C ratio effectively as well as lowering concentrations of serum triglyceride.