Assessment between antiseptic and normal saline for negative pressure wound therapy with instillation and dwell time in diabetic foot infections.

Negative pressure wound therapy with instillation and dwell time (NPWTi-d) is increasingly used for a diverse range of wounds. Meanwhile, the topical wound irrigation solution consisting of polyhexamethylene biguanide and betaine (PHMB-B) has shown efficacy in managing wound infections. However, the effectiveness of this solution as a topical instillation solution for NPWTi-d in patients with diabetic foot infections (DFIs) has not been thoroughly studied. The objective of this retrospective study was to evaluate the impact of using PHMB-B as the instillation solution during NPWTi-d on reducing bioburden and improving clinical outcomes in patients with DFIs. Between January 2017 and December 2022, a series of patients with DFIs received treatment with NPWTi-d, using either PHMB-B or normal saline as the instillation solution. Data collected retrospectively included demographic information, baseline wound characteristics, and treatment outcomes. The study included 61 patients in the PHMB-B group and 73 patients in the normal saline group, all diagnosed with DFIs. In comparison to patients treated with normal saline, patients with PHMB-B exhibited no significant differences in terms of wound bed preparation time (P = 0.5034), length of hospital stay (P = 0.6783), NPWTi-d application times (P = 0.1458), duration of systematic antimicrobial administration (P = 0.3567), or overall cost of hospitalization (P = 0.6713). The findings of the study suggest that the use of either PHMB-B or normal saline as an instillation solution in NPWTi-d for DFIs shows promise and effectiveness, yet no clinical distinction was observed between the two solutions.

Maternal methyl donor supplementation: A potential therapy for metabolic disorder in offspring.

The prevalences of diabetes mellitus and obesity are increasing yearly and has become a serious social burden. In addition to genetic factors, environmental factors in early life development are critical in influencing the prevalence of metabolic disorders in offspring. A growing body of evidence suggests the critical role of early methyl donor intervention in offspring health. Emerging studies have shown that methyl donors can influence offspring metabolism through epigenetic modifications and changing metabolism-related genes. In this review, we focus on the role of folic acid, betaine, vitamin B12, methionine, and choline in protecting against metabolic disorders in offspring. To address the current evidence on the potential role of maternal methyl donors, we summarize clinical studies as well as experimental animal models that support the impact of maternal methyl donors on offspring metabolism and discuss the mechanisms of action that may bring about these positive effects. Given the worldwide prevalence of metabolic disorders, these findings could be utilized in clinical practice, in which methyl donor supplementation in the early life years may reverse metabolic disorders in offspring and block the harmful intergenerational effect.

Preparation of betaine injection and its therapeutic effect in pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a life-threatening disease characterised by elevated pulmonary pressure, right ventricular failure (RVF) and ultimately death. Aggressive treatment of RVF is considered an important therapeutic strategy to treat PAH. Previous studies have indicated that betaine may be may a promising therapeutic approach for PAH-induced RVF. Therefore, in this study, betaine solution for injection was prepared and characterised using various techniques. The therapeutic efficacy of three different methods of administration (intragastric, nebulised inhalation and intravenous injection) were comprehensively evaluated in terms of pharmacokinetics, tissue distribution and pharmacodynamics. The pharmacokinetic results demonstrated that betaine injection administered via nebulised inhalation significantly prolonged betaine's half-life and increased its internal circulation time compared to the intragastric and intravenous routes. Biodistribution experiments verified that the betaine formulation accumulated in the lung tissue when administered via inhalation. The results of the pharmacodynamic analysis further confirmed that right ventricular systolic pressure, mean pulmonary artery pressure and right ventricular hypertrophy index increased in the model group and that inhaled betaine suppressed these pathological changes to a level comparable to those observed in the control group. Taken together, these results indicate that betaine administered by inhalation is a promising strategy for the treatment of PAH-induced RVF.

Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of betaine protect against sepsis-induced acute lung injury: CT and histological evidence.

The aim of this research was to determine the anti-inflammatory effect of betaine on sepsis-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in rats through histopathological examination, radiologic imaging, and biochemical analysis. Eight rats were included in the control group, and no procedure was performed. Feces intraperitoneal procedure (FIP) was performed on 24 rats to create a sepsis-induced ARDS model. These rats were separated into three groups as follows: FIP alone (sepsis group, n=8), FIP + saline (1 mL/kg, placebo group, n=8), and FIP + betaine (500 mg/kg, n=8). Computed tomography (CT) was performed after FIP, and the Hounsfield units (HU) value of the lungs was measured. The plasma levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß), IL-6, C-reactive protein, malondialdehyde (MDA), and lactic acid (LA) were determined, and arterial oxygen pressure (PaO2) and arterial CO2 pressure (PaCO2) were measured from an arterial blood sample. Histopathology was used to evaluate lung damage. This study completed all histopathological and biochemical evaluations in 3 months. All evaluated biomarkers were decreased in the FIP + betaine group compared to FIP + saline and FIP alone (all P<0.05). Also, the parenchymal density of the rat lung on CT and histopathological scores were increased in FIP + saline and FIP alone compared to control and these findings were reversed by betaine treatment (all P<0.05). Our study demonstrated that betaine suppressed the inflammation and ameliorated acute lung injury in a rat model of sepsis.

Adolescent/Adult-Onset Leukodystrophy with MTHFR Deficiency - A Treatable Cause.

Leukodystrophies and genetic leukoencephalopathies comprise a diverse group of neurodegenerative disorders of white matter with a wide age of onset and phenotypic spectrum. Patients with white matter abnormalities detected on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) often present a diagnostic challenge to both general and specialist neurologists. Patients typically present with a progressive syndrome including various combinations of cognitive impairment, movement disorders, ataxia, and upper motor neuron signs. There are a number of important and treatable acquired causes for this imaging and clinical presentation; one of the causes is hyperhomocystinemia due to 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) deficiency. MTHFR deficiency is a genetic disorder that can occur at any age and can be easily detected by increased serum homocysteine levels and it is a treatable cause. Metabolic therapies like betaine were shown to be effective in children and adults to stop the disease progression and sometimes improve neurologic disabilities. Herein, we report a 16-year-old male with gradually progressive spastic paraparesis with history of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis and poor scholastic performance. The patient was diagnosed with MTHFR enzyme deficiency presenting as leukodystrophy with spastic paraparesis, which is treatable on early diagnosis. Treatment with betaine produced a rapid decline of homocysteine and improved the condition.

Randomized clinical trial on the clinical effects of a toothpaste containing extra virgin olive oil, xylitol, and betaine in gingivitis.

To determine the effects on gingival bleeding, dental biofilm, and salivary flow and pH in patients with gingivitis of using toothpaste with extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO), xylitol, and betaine in comparison to a placebo or commercial toothpaste. This controlled, double blinded, and multicenter randomized clinical trial included patients with gingivitis randomly assigned to one of three groups: test group (EVOO, xylitol, and betaine toothpaste), control group 1 (placebo toothpaste), or control group 2 (commercial toothpaste). Percentage supragingival biofilm and gingival bleeding were evaluated at baseline (T0), 2 months (T2), and 4 months (T4), measuring non-stimulated salivary flow and salivary pH. Comparisons were performed between and within groups. The final study sample comprised 20 in the test group, 21 in control group 1, and 20 in control group 2. In comparison to control group 1, the test group showed significantly greater decreases in gingival bleeding between T4 and T0 (p = 0.02) and in biofilm between T2 and T0 (p = 0.02) and between T4 and T0 (p = 0.01). In the test group, salivary flow significantly increased between T2 and T0 (p = 0.01), while pH alkalization was significantly greater between T4 and T0 versus control group 2 (p = 0.01) and close-to-significantly greater versus control group 1 (p = 0.06). The toothpaste with EVOO, xylitol, and betaine obtained the best outcomes in patients with gingivitis, who showed reductions in gingival bleeding and supragingival biofilm and an increase in pH at 4 months in comparison to a commercial toothpaste.

Cost-Effectiveness of PHMB & betaine wound bed preparation compared with standard care in venous leg ulcers: A cost-utility analysis in the United Kingdom.

BACKGROUND: Wounds cost £8.3 billion per year in the United Kingdom (UK) annually. Venous leg ulcers (VLUs) account for 15% of wounds and can be complicated to heal, increasing nurse visits and resource costs. Recent wound bed preparation consensus recommends wound cleansing and biofilm disrupting agents. However, inert cleansers such as tap water or saline are inexpensive, an evaluation of evidence is required to justify the higher upfront costs of treatment with active cleansers. We undertook a cost-effectiveness analysis of the use of a biofilm disrupting and cleansing solution and gel, Prontosan® Solution and Gel X, (PSGX) (B Braun Medical), as compared to the standard practice of using saline solution, for treating VLUs. METHODS: A Markov model was parameterised to one-year costs and health-related quality of life consequences of treating chronic VLUs with PSGX versus saline solution. Costs are viewed from a UK healthcare payer perspective, include routine care and management of complications. A systematic literature search was performed to inform the clinical parameters of the economic model. Deterministic univariate sensitivity analysis (DSA) and probabilistic sensitivity analysis (PSA) were undertaken. RESULTS: For PSGX an Incremental Net Monetary Benefit (INMB) of £1,129.65 to £1,042.39 per patient (with a Maximum Willingness to Pay of £30k and £20k per QALY respectively), of which cost savings are £867.87 and 0.0087 quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) gain per patient. PSA indicates a 99.3% probability of PSGX being cost-effective over saline. CONCLUSIONS: PSGX for the treatment of VLUs is dominant compared with saline solution in the UK with expected cost-savings within a year and improved patient outcomes.

Betaine consumption as a new clinical approach to treatment and prophylaxis of folate-related pathologies.

The most important pathway in the development of folate-related pathologies is an increase in the level of homocysteine (HC). HC, a cytotoxic and neurotoxic amino acid (when its level is ≥12 µmol/L), is 1 of the most widely studied compounds in cardiology, neurobiology, oncology, and embryology for the last 20 years. Given its toxicity, the processes of endogenous detoxification of HC are of particular interest to medicine. To date, the most studied pathway is that of remethylation (the conversion of HC to methionine), with the participation of B12- and B9-dependent methionine synthase. Less studied is remethylation with the participation of the choline derivatives betaine and betaine-HC-S-methyltransferase (BHMT). Therefore, the aim of this review was to conduct a theoretical analysis of available information regarding the contribution of betaine metabolism, its enzyme, and its genetic polymorphism to folate metabolism disturbances, and the development of folate-related pathologies. This review emphasizes the potential clinical significance of 2 factors that can influence the remethylation reaction of HC: the use of betaine and identifying the BHMT gene variants and their impact on the risk for developing certain folate-related pathologies, and treatment options. Moreover, with a high level of methylation of the BHMT gene and in the presence of its low-function variants (eg, rs3733890), it is necessary to use betaine as an additional methyl donor, especially during folate therapy. More clinical research is needed to identify the effects of the different BHMT gene variants on the individual risk for folate-related pathologies to better assess the clinical significance, the need for genetic testing, and betaine consumption.

Betaine supplementation alleviates dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis via regulating the inflammatory response, enhancing the intestinal barrier, and altering gut microbiota.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a multifaceted and recurrent immune disorder that occurs in the gastrointestinal tract. Betaine is a natural compound that exerts beneficial anti-inflammatory effects. However, the role of betaine in protecting IBD is still unclear. Therefore, the aim of our study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of betaine in dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis. The results showed that betaine greatly increased the body weight and decreased the disease activity index score of DSS-treated mice. Furthermore, betaine effectively downregulated the protein levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNFα) and upregulated tight junction proteins (occludin and ZO-1) in the mice. Additionally, betaine exposure remarkably restricted the DSS-induced phosphorylation of IκB and NF-κB p65 in mice. Similarly, betaine pretreatment improved the inflammatory response and intestinal barrier of Caco-2 cells. Betaine altered the gut microbiota composition, markedly decreasing the relative abundance of Firmicutes and Proteobacteria and considerably increasing the relative abundance of Bacteroidota and Campylobacterota in DSS-induced mice. In conclusion, betaine could attenuate colitis via regulating the inflammatory response, enhancing the intestinal barrier, and altering gut microbiota and is conducive to developing new drugs for treating human diseases.

Efficacy and pharmacokinetics of betaine in CBS and cblC deficiencies: a cross-over randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Betaine is an "alternate" methyl donor for homocysteine remethylation catalyzed by betaine homocysteine methyltransferase (BHMT), an enzyme mainly expressed in the liver and kidney. Betaine has been used for more than 30 years in pyridoxine non-responsive cystathionine beta-synthase (pnrCBS) and cobalamin C (cblC) deficiencies to lower the hyperhomocysteinemia, although little is known about the optimal therapeutic dosage and its pharmacokinetic in these patients. AIMS: We compared 2 betaine doses (100 mg/kg/day vs. 250 mg/kg/day) in children affected by pnrCBS or cblC deficiencies. We also measured the pharmacokinetics parameters after a single dose of betaine (100 or 250 mg/kg) in these patients. METHODS: We conducted a prospective, randomized, crossover clinical trial with blinded evaluation. The primary outcome was the equivalence of total plasma homocysteine (tHcy) concentrations upon one-month oral treatment with betaine at 100 versus 250 mg/kg/day. RESULTS: Eleven patients completed the study (5 pnrCBS and 6 cblC). tHcy concentrations were equivalent after a one-month treatment period for the two betaine dosages. Multivariate analysis showed a significant effect of betaine dose on methionine (Met) (p = 0.01) and S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) concentrations (p = 0.006). CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis shows that there is no overt benefit to increasing betaine dosage higher than 100 mg/kg/day to lower tHcy concentrations in pnrCBS and cblC deficiencies. However, increasing betaine up to 250 mg/kg/d could benefit cblC patients through the increase of methionine and SAM concentrations, as low Met and SAM concentrations are involved in the pathophysiology of this disease. In contrast, in pnrCBS deficiency, betaine doses higher than 100 mg/kg/day could be harmful to these patients with pre-existing hypermethioninemia. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinical Trials, NCT02404337. Registered 23 May 2015-prospectively registered, https://clinicaltrials.gov .

Betaína anidra para o tratamento de pacientes com homocistinúria com deficiências ou defeitos da cistationina-betasintetase, não responsivos a piridoxina (B6) / Anidra betaine for the treatment of patients with homocystinuria with cystathionine-betasynthetase deficiencies or defects, unresponsive to pyridoxine (B6)

INTRODUÇÃO: A homocistinúria ocorre por conta de mutações em enzimas envolvidas no metabolismo da metionina, sendo elas: deficiência da cistationina-beta-sintetase (CBS), deficiência da 5,10- metilenotetrahidrofolato redutase (MTHFR) ou defeito no cofator do metabolismo da cobalamina (cbl). É uma condição clínica que acomete um pequeno número de pessoas e designa um grupo de doenças metabólicas hereditárias, e em função de decorrer de mutações em enzimas do metabolismo da metionina, a homocistinúria, é uma doença progressiva, sendo mais grave a evolução quanto mais precocemente se manifestam os sintomas. Por ser uma doença progressiva e sistêmica, o quadro clínico da homocistinúria é caracterizado por complicações que podem atingir diversos sistemas biológicos. Algumas das principais manifestações clínicas são o deslocamento das lentes dos olhos para baixo (ectopia lentis), osteoporose, retardo mental, convulsões e, principalmente, fenômenos tromboembólicos. Os fenômenos tromboembólicos revestem-se da maior importância, por determinarem a ocorrência de eventos cardiovasculares sérios, como infarto do miocárdio e acidentes vasculares encefálicos muito precocemente na vida, com impacto significativo na morbimortalidade. PERGUNTA DE PESQUISA: O uso de betaína anidra como terapia complementar no tratamento de pacientes com homocistinúria com deficiências ou defeitos da cistationina-betasintetase, não responsivos a piridoxina (B6) é eficaz, seguro e custo-efetivo em relação às terapias disponíveis no SUS? EVIDÊNCIAS CIENTÍFICAS: Em revisão sistemática da literatura, o demandante selecionou 1 ECR e 04 séries de casos e 02 estudos observacionais com subgrupo de interesse. No relatório de avaliação crítica foi realizada nova busca nas bases de dados e foram excluídas da análise as quatro séries de casos pela limitação metodológica do tipo de estudo e o número muito baixo de pacientes. Observou-se que na maioria dos estudos, o uso de betaína levou a redução pelo menos numérica dos níveis de homocisteína. Destaca-se que em ECR, essa redução foi significativa para o grupo betaína frente ao placebo.) Ainda, foi observado aumento também pelo menos numérico da cisteína e da metionina em pacientes em uso de betaína.Entretanto, no ECR, o aumento da metionina no grupo betaína apesar de numericamente maior não apresentou significância estatística na comparação frente ao placebo. Os valores de densidade mineral óssea avaliados não foram observadas diferenças significativas entre betaína e placebo, apesar de pacientes em uso de betaína apresentarem resultados numericamente melhores. Em termos de segurança, a betaína foi considerada tolerável, sem relatos de disfunção hepática, renal ou de medula óssea e nenhum relato de efeito indesejado. Ainda, não foram reportados eventos adversos ou intolerância ao tratamento. AVALIAÇÃO ECONÔMICA: A análise econômica realizada pelo demandante baseou-se em modelo de custoutilidade e os resultados são apresentados na forma de custo incremental por ano de vida ganho e por QALY.O curso da doença foi simulado utilizando o modelo de Markov. O modelo incluiu três estados de saúde:Pacientes sem evento cardiovascular, pacientes com evento cardiovascular e morte. O horizonte temporal foi de 20 anos. Para um paciente viver um ano livre da ocorrência de eventos cardiovasculares (1 AVL de ECV) a RCEI foi de R$ 492.124,91. Para um paciente viver um ano com a qualidade de saúde plena (1 QALY) a RCEI foi de R$ 1.525.349,65 milhões. ANÁLISE DE IMPACTO ORÇAMENTÁRIO: Foi realizada pelo demandante, análise de impacto orçamentário (AIO) tendo como população alvo pacientes com homocistinúria clássica não responsivos à piridoxina (vitamina B6) O demandante criou dois cenários, um baseado em dados epidemiológicos e outro baseado em demanda aferida.A demanda epidemiológica , resulta em um investimento incremental, acumulados em 5 anos de R$ R$ 11.025.966 e de R$ 3.570.275 para a demanda aferida considerando um Market-share de 50% a 90% no quinto ano. MONITORAMENTO DO HORIZONTE TECNOLÓGICO: No horizonte considerado nesta análise, não se detectou nenhuma tecnologia potencial para o tratamento de pacientes com homocistinúria clássica, não responsivos a piridoxina (B6). Porém, cabe informar que existem duas tecnologias com estudos de fase 1/2 em andamento para homocistinúria clássica, independentemente da responsividade à piridoxina, a pegtarviliase e a pegtibatinase. CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS: A análise da evidência clínica apresentada pelo demandante sugere que a tecnologia proposta apresenta efetividade superior quando usada em combinação às alternativas disponíveis atualmente no SUS. Os estudos avaliando betaína são estudos com baixo número amostral,suscetíveis a vieses importantes e há ausência de um ensaio clínico randomizado que avalie a betaína anidra em um número de pacientes maior.O fato de ser uma doença rara corrobora para não termos evidências robustas dessa tecnologia. O modelo de custo-efetividade/utilidade construído pelo demandante utilizou uma abordagem considerando apenas três estados de transições e um horizonte temporal de 20 anos, porém não justificou essa escolha que difere do recomendado nas diretrizes brasileiras. Não foi referida a utilização de taxa de desconto. O modelo adotado considerou manifestações clínicas relacionadas apenas a eventos cardiovasculares, porém a homocistinúria têm outras manifestações clínicas importantes que podem impactar diretamente na qualidade de vida dos pacientes que não estão avaliadas no modelo. Os dados de custos dos medicamentos consideraram PMVG DE 17% sendo mais adequado a utilização de valores considerando 18% de imposto. Como a homocistinúria acomete pacientes pediátricos seria importante apresentar análises de sensibilidade ou justificar o valor do tratamento para não superestimar os custos já que o medicamento avaliado é calculado por peso do paciente. O demandante apresentou uma AIO adequada em relação ao market share e considerou a fragilidade dos dados da população ­alvo apresentando uma análise por demanda aferida e por demanda epidemiológica. A demanda aferida calculada apresenta dados mais perto da realidade dos pacientes diagnosticados no Brasil com homocistinúria. RECOMENDAÇÃO PRELIMINAR DA CONITEC: Os membros do Plenário, presentes na 113ª Reunião Ordinária da Conitec, no dia 05 de outubro de 2022, deliberaram que deliberaram que a matéria fosse disponibilizada em consulta pública com recomendação preliminar desfavorável à incorporação ao SUS da betaína anidra para o tratamento de pacientes com homocistinúria com deficiências ou defeitos da cistationina-beta- sintetase, não responsivos a piridoxina (B6). CONSULTA PÚBLICA: Foram recebidas 121 contribuições, sendo 07 pelo formulário técnico-científico e 114 pelo formulário sobre experiência ou opinião. Todas as contribuições de cunho técnico-científico recebidas foram contra a recomendação inicial da Conitec. A maioria dos respondentes do formulário de experiência e opinião manifestou-se favorável à incorporação da betaína anidra. Entre as opiniões favoráveis, destacaram-se os temas sobre direito à saúde e o papel essencial do medicamento avaliado para o tratamento dos pacientes não responsivos à piridoxina. Os participantes também mencionaram o aumento da qualidade de vida, o fato de o medicamento se destinar ao tratamento de uma doença rara, ser um medicamento recomendado por profissionais de saúde, o tratamento da doença demandar a associação do medicamento com outras tecnologias, a segurança em relação à padronização na produção do medicamento e se tratar de uma questão de sobrevivência. Em relação à experiência com a betaína anidra, como efeitos positivos ou facilidades, os respondentes relataram o controle da doença, boa resposta terapêutica, prevenção de manifestações clínicas da doença e ação anticoagulante. Em contraponto, reportaram a dificuldade de acesso ao medicamento. RECOMENDAÇÃO FINAL DA CONITEC: Pelo exposto, o Plenário da Conitec, em sua 12ª Reunião Extraordinária, no dia 29 de novembro de 2022, deliberou, por unanimidade, recomendar a não incorporação da betaína anidra para o tratamento de pacientes com homocistinúria com deficiências ou defeitos da cistationina-beta-sintetase, não responsivos a piridoxina (B6). Por fim, foi assinado o Registro de Deliberação nº 788/2022. DECISÃO: Não incorporar, no âmbito do Sistema Único de Saúde - SUS, a betaína anidra para o tratamento de pacientes com homocistinúria com deficiências ou defeitos da cistationina-betasintetase, não responsivos a piridoxina (B6), conforme protocolo estabelecido pelo Ministério da Saúde, conforme a Portaria nº 176, publicada no Diário Oficial da União nº 238, seção 1, página 231, em 20 de dezembro de 2022.

Investigation of the Gastroprotective Effect of Betaine-Homocysteine Homeostasis on Oxidative Stress, Inflammation and Apoptosis in Ethanol-Induced Ulcer Model.

Background: There is a growing interest in the use of natural compounds for the treatment of gastric ulcers. The multifunctional roles of betaine in various diseases make this natural substance a favorable pre-drug for ulcer treatment. This study aims to determine the competence of betaine in gastroprotection against ethanol-induced damage and to explore underlying mechanisms considering its effects on liver and kidney activity and blood parameters.Methods: Wistar albino rats were orally treated with vehicle (distilled water) or betaine (250 mg/kg) for twenty-one days and then ulcer formation was induced by ingestion of 75% ethanol. Gastric mucosal damage was evaluated by gross examination and histopathological analysis. Homocysteine levels, lipid peroxidation, total antioxidant status (TAS), total oxidant status (TAS), antioxidant enzymes and pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines levels were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or immunohistochemistry. Furthermore, routine biochemical tests were performed and hematological parameters were analyzed.Results: Betaine ameliorated any gastric mucosal damage and reduced homocysteine levels significantly. The TOS and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were decreased while the TAS, glutathione (GSH) levels and catalase (CAT) activity were increased upon the betaine treatment. Betaine reduced apoptosis by regulating Bax and Bcl-2 levels, however, it did not alter inflammatory mediators. Additionally, betaine improved serum potassium (K+) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels, whereas it increased alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels and impaired hematological parameters.Conclusions: Altogether, these data illustrated that betaine exhibits a gastroprotective effect against ulcers through the homocysteine pathway by modulating oxidative stress in the gastric tissue; however, its systemic effects should not be ignored.

Guanidinoacetic acid provides superior cardioprotection to its combined use with betaine and (or) creatine in HIIT-trained rats.

This study aimed to determine how guanidinoacetic acid (GAA) or its combined administration with betaine (B) or creatine (C) influences the cardiac function, morphometric parameters, and redox status of rats subjected to high-intensity interval training (HIIT). This research was conducted on male Wistar albino rats exposed to HIIT for 4 weeks. The animals were randomly divided into five groups: HIIT, HIIT + GAA, HIIT + GAA + C, HIIT + GAA + B, and HIIT + GAA + C + B. After completing the training protocol, GAA (300 mg/kg), C (280 mg/kg), and B (300 mg/kg) were applied daily per os for 4 weeks. GAA supplementation in combination with HIIT significantly decreased the level of both systemic and cardiac prooxidants ( O 2 - , H2O2, NO 2 - , and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) compared with nontreated HIIT (p < 0.05). Also, GAA treatment led to an increase in glutathione and superoxide dismutase levels. None of the treatment regimens altered cardiac function. A larger degree of cardiomyocyte hypertrophy was observed in the HIIT + GAA group, which was reflected through an increase of the cross-sectional area of 27% (p < 0.05) and that of the left ventricle wall thickness of 27% (p < 0.05). Since we showed that GAA in combination with HIIT may ameliorate oxidative stress and does not alter cardiac function, the present study is a basis for future research exploring the mechanisms of cardioprotection induced by this supplement in an HIIT scenario.

Preventive Effect of Betaine Against Cognitive Impairments in Amyloid ß Peptide-Injected Mice Through Sirtuin1 in Hippocampus.

In the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease, the deposition of amyloid ß peptide (Aß) is associated with oxidative stress, leading to cognitive impairment and neurodegeneration. We have already reported that betaine (glycine betaine), an osmolyte and methyl donor in cells, prevents the development of cognitive impairment in mice with intracerebroventricular injection of Aß25-35, an active fragment of Aß, associated with oxidative stress in the hippocampus, but molecular mechanisms of betaine remain to be determined. Here, to investigate a key molecule underlying the preventive effect of betaine against cognitive impairments in Aß25-35-injected mice, cognitive tests and qPCR assays were performed in Aß25-35-injected mice with continuous betaine intake, in which intake was started a day before Aß25-35 injection, and then continued for 8 days. The Aß25-35 injection impaired short-term and object recognition memories in the Y-maze and object recognition tests, respectively. PCR assays revealed the down-regulation of Sirtuin1 (SIRT1), a NAD+-dependent deacetylase that mediates metabolic responses, in the hippocampus of Aß25-35-injected mice, whereas betaine intake prevented memory deficits as well as the decrease of hippocampal SIRT1 expression in Aß25-35-injected mice. Further, sirtinol, an inhibitor of the Sirtuin family, blocked the preventive effect of betaine against memory deficits. On the other hand, resveratrol, the potent compound that activates SIRT1, also prevented memory impairments in Aß25-35-injected mice, suggesting that SIRT1 plays a causative role in the preventive effect of betaine against memory deficits caused by Aß exposure.

Betaine attenuate chronic restraint stress-induced changes in testicular damage and oxidative stress in male mice.

SCOPE: Male fertility and sperm quality are negatively affected by psychological stress. Chronic restraint stress (CRS) is a common psychological stress that has a negative effect on sperm. Betaine (BET), an active ingredient isolated from Lycium barbarum, has anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and other pharmacological activities. This study aims to explore whether betaine has a therapeutic effect on sperm deformity and vitality under CRS and its mechanism. METHODS AND RESULTS: Chronic restraint stress was induced in 8-week-old male C57BL/6 J mice by fixation for 6 h a day for 35 days. Mice were intraperitoneally injected with betaine (BET) or normal saline (NS) for 14 days. Thirty-five days later, the animals were sacrificed. The results showed that the detrimental effects of CRS on testes as evident by disrupted histoarchitecture, increased oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis that compromised male fertility. BET injections can reverse these symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: BET can improve spermatogenesis dysfunction caused by CRS, which may provide potential dietary guidance.

The anti-diabetic potential of betaine. Mechanisms of action in rodent models of type 2 diabetes.

Betaine (N, N, N-trimethylglycine) is an amino-acid derivative exerting numerous beneficial effects on the organism. This compound is found in human and animal diets but is also endogenously generated. However, its synthesis may be insufficient to maintain or improve health. Moreover, the tissue content of betaine reduces under some pathological conditions, such as type 2 diabetes. This decrease may be, however, easily alleviated by dietary betaine supplementation. Rodent studies provided evidence that betaine effectively limits many diabetes-related disturbances. Betaine therapy improves glucose tolerance and insulin action, which is strongly associated with changes in insulin-sensitive tissues, such as skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, and liver. Betaine supplementation positively affects multiple genes, which expression is dysregulated in diabetes. AMP-activated protein kinase is thought to play a central role in the mechanism underlying the anti-diabetic betaine action. Moreover, studies with animal models of type 2 diabetes have shown that betaine exerts anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects, and also alleviates endoplasmic reticulum stress. These changes contribute to improved insulin sensitivity and better blood glucose clearance. The results of animal studies encourage the exploration of the therapeutic betaine efficacy in humans with type 2 diabetes.

Betaine Modulating MIF-Mediated Oxidative Stress, Inflammation and Fibrogenesis in Thioacetamide-Induced Nephrotoxicity.

BACKGROUND: Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is a proinflammatory cytokine with chemokine properties released by various immune and non-immune cells. It contributes to the pathogenesis of many inflammatory, autoimmune diseases and malignant tumors. OBJECTIVE: Our study aimed to investigate the role of betaine in the modulation of MIF-mediated oxidative stress, inflammation, and fibrogenesis during toxic kidney damage induced by thioacetamide (TAA). METHODS: The experiment is performed on wild-type and knockout MIF-/- C57BL/6 mice. They are randomly divided into groups: Control; Bet-group, received betaine (2% wt/v dissolved in drinking water); MIF-/- mice group; MIF-/- + Bet; TAA-group, treated with TAA (200 mg/kg b.w.), intraperitoneally, 3x/week/8 weeks); TAA+Bet; MIF-/-+TAA, and MIF-/- + TAA+Bet group. After eight weeks of treatment, animals are sacrificed and kidney samples are taken to determine oxidative stress parameters, proinflammatory cytokines, profibrogenic factors, and histopathology of renal tissue. RESULTS: In MIF-/-mice, TAA decreases malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-ß1) and platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) and increases superoxide dismutases (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities, as well as glutathione (GSH) content in kidneys, compared to TAA group. Betaine alleviates the mechanism of MIF-mediated effects in TAA-induced nephrotoxicity, reducing MDA, IL-6, TNF-α, TGF-ß1, and PDGF-BB, and increasing SOD and CAT activity, as well as GSH levels. CONCLUSION: MIF mediates TAA-induced nephrotoxicity by increasing oxidative stress, inflammation, and profibrogenic mediators. MIF-targeted therapy could potentially alleviate oxidative stress and inflammation in the kidney, as well as pathohistological changes in renal tissue, but the exact mechanism of its action is not completely clear. Betaine alleviates MIF nephrotoxic effects by increasing the antioxidative capacity of kidney cells, and decreasing lipid peroxidation and cytokine production in the renal tissue. It suggests that betaine can be used for the prevention of kidney damage.

Effects of betaine on non-alcoholic liver disease.

The increasing prevalence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) poses a growing challenge in terms of its prevention and treatment. The 'multiple hits' hypothesis of multiple insults, such as dietary fat intake, de novo lipogenesis, insulin resistance, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, gut dysbiosis and hepatic inflammation, can provide a more accurate explanation of the pathogenesis of NAFLD. Betaine plays important roles in regulating the genes associated with NAFLD through anti-inflammatory effects, increased free fatty oxidation, anti-lipogenic effects and improved insulin resistance and mitochondrial function; however, the mechanism of betaine remains elusive.