Nitric oxide is involved in the brassinolide-induced adventitious root development in cucumber.

BACKGROUND: Brassinolide (BR), as a new type of plant hormones, is involved in the processes of plant growth and stress response. Previous studies have reported the roles of BR in regulating plant developmental processes and also response tolerance to abiotic stresses in plants. The main purpose of our study was to explore whether nitric oxide (NO) plays a role in the process of BR-induced adventitious root formation in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.). RESULTS: Exogenous application of 1 µM BR significantly promoted adventitious rooting, while high concentrations of BR (2-8 µM) effectively inhibited adventitious rooting. NO donor (S-nitroso-N-acerylpenicillamine, SNAP) promoted the occurrence of adventitious roots. Simultaneously, BR and SNAP applied together significantly promoted adventitious rooting and the combined effect was superior to the application of BR or SNAP alone. Moreover, NO scavenger (c-PTIO) and inhibitors (L-NAME and Tungstate) inhibited the positive effects of BR on adventitious rooting. BR at 1 µM also increased endogenous NO content, NO synthase (NOS-like) and Nitrate reductase (NR) activities, while BRz (a specific BR biosynthesis inhibitor) decreased these effects. In addition, the relative expression level of NR was up-regulated by BR and SNAP, whereas BRz down-regulated it. The application of NO inhibitor (Tungstate) in BR also inhibited the up-regulation of NR. CONCLUSION: BR promoted the formation of adventitious roots by inducing the production of endogenous NO in cucumber.

24-Epibrassinolide application in plants: An implication for improving drought stress tolerance in plants.

Drought stress is one of most dramatic abiotic stresses, reduces crop yield significantly. Application of hormones proved as an effective drought stress ameliorating approach. 24-Epibrassinolide (EBL), an active by-product from brassinolide biosynthesis increases drought stress tolerance in plants significantly. EBL application enhances plant growth and development under drought stress by acting as signalling compound in different physiological processes. This article discussed potential role of 24-epibrassinolide application and drought tolerance in plants. Briefly, EBL sustains or improves plant growth and yield by enhancing carbon assimilation rate, maintaining a balance between ROS and antioxidants and also plays important role in solute accumulation and water relations. Furthermore, we also compared different EBL application methods and concluded that seed priming and foliar application are more productive as compared with root application method. In conclusion, EBL is very impressive phyto-hormone, which can ameliorate drought stress induced detrimental effects in plants.

Exogenous application of calcium to 24-epibrassinosteroid pre-treated tomato seedlings mitigates NaCl toxicity by modifying ascorbate-glutathione cycle and secondary metabolites.

The present study tested the efficacy of 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) and calcium (Ca) for mediating salinity tolerance in tomato. Salinity stress affected the morphological parameters of tomato as well as leaf relative water content (LRWC), photosynthetic and accessory pigments, leaf gas exchange parameters, chlorophyll fluorescence and the uptake of essential macronutrients. The salt (NaCl) treatment induced oxidative stress in the form of increased Na+ ion concentration by 146%, electrolyte leakage (EL) by 61.11%, lipid peroxidation (MDA) 167% and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) content by 175%. Salt stress also enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities including those in the ascorbate-glutathione cycle. Plants treated with EBL or Ca after salt exposure mitigated the ill effects of salt stress, including oxidative stress, by reducing the uptake of Na+ ions by 52%. The combined dose of EBL + Ca reversed the salt-induced changes through an elevated pool of enzymes in the ascorbate-glutathione cycle, other antioxidants (superoxide dismutase, catalase), and osmoprotectants (proline, glycine betaine). Exogenously applied EBL and Ca help to optimize mineral nutrient status and enable tomato plants to tolerate salt toxicity. The ability of tomato plants to tolerate salt stress when supplemented with EBL and Ca was attributed to modifications to enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, osmolytes and metabolites.

Spraying Brassinolide improves Sigma Broad tolerance in foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.) through modulation of antioxidant activity and photosynthetic capacity.

To explore the role of Brassinolide (BR) in improving the tolerance of Sigma Broad in foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.), effects of 0.1 mg/L of BR foliar application 24 h before 3.37 g/ha of Sigma Broad treatment at five-leaf stage of foxtail millet on growth parameters, antioxidant enzymes, malondialdehyde (MDA), chlorophyll, net photosynthetic rate (P N), chlorophyll fluorescence and P700 parameters were studied 7 and 15 d after herbicide treatment, respectively. Results showed that Sigma Broad significantly decreased plant height, activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), chlorophyll content, P N, PS II effective quantum yield (Y (II)), PS II electron transport rate (ETR (II)), photochemical quantum yield of PSI(Y (I)) and PS I electron transport rate ETR (I), but significantly increased MDA. Compared to herbicide treatment, BR dramatically increased plant height, activities of SOD, Y (II), ETR (II), Y (I) and ETR (I). This study showed BR pretreatment could improve the tolerance of Sigma Broad in foxtail millet through improving the activity of antioxidant enzymes, keeping electron transport smooth, and enhancing actual photochemical efficiency of PS II and PSI.

The effect of brassinolide, a plant steroid hormone, on drug resistant small-cell lung carcinoma cells.

Small-cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) has a dismal prognosis in part because of multidrug resistance (MDR). Epibrassinolide (EB) is a steroid hormone in plants, with many physiological effects. It acts via a membrane receptor and GSK3 pathway, resulting in stabilization of a transcription factor. The parallels to the Wnt signaling pathway, which is activated in SCLC and results in increased ß-catenin, prompted investigations of the effects of EB on drug-resistant (VPA17) and drug-sensitive (H69) SCLC cells. EB was cytotoxic to both cell lines (IC50 = 2 µM), indicating a lack of cross-resistance in the VPA17 cell line. EB was pro-apoptotic after 24 h as measured by ELISA of BUdR-labeled DNA fragments and caspase-3 specific activity (2.5 enzyme units/mg protein vs. 0.01 units/mg protein for untreated controls). Matrigel assays showed that EB reduced the SCLC cell invasion phenotype by 80%. Pre-incubation of VPA17 cells in 1 µM EB for 96 h reversed resistance to etoposide (IC50 = 6.0 µM, reduced to 1.8 µM with EB) and doxorubicin (IC50 = 0.37 µM, reduced to 0.09 µM). Synergism between EB and chemotherapy drugs was investigated by exposure of VPA17 cells to 1:1 ratios at the respective IC50 values, with serial dilutions at 0.25 to 2.0 × IC50 and determination of the combination index (CI). EB and etoposide showed synergism (CI = 0.80 at ED50); EB and doxorubicin also showed synergism (CI = 0.65 at ED50). Incubation of SCLC cells in EB led to a time- and dose dependent reduction of ß-catenin (maximum 80% reduction). Gene expression analyses of SCLC cells showed EB incubation resulted in significant reduction in expression of ß-catenin-dependent genes that are anti-apoptotic (e.g., c-Jun, survivin), cell division-related (e.g., CCND1 cyclin, sox9), and metastasis-related (e.g., MMP7, uPAR). WIKI4, a known inhibitor of Wnt signaling, was cytotoxic to SCLC cells (IC50 = 0.02 µM). Synergism between EB and WIKI4 was determined by the CI method and showed antagonism (CI = 1.09 at ED50), suggesting that EB and WIKI4 act on the same pathway. Taken together, these data indicate that EB, a natural product with widespread occurrence in plants, is pharmacologically active in both drug-sensitive and drug-resistant SCLC cells and acts through the Wnt signaling pathway.

24-Epibrassinolide ameliorates salt stress effects in the symbiosis Medicago truncatula-Sinorhizobium meliloti and regulates the nodulation in cross-talk with polyamines.

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are steroid plant hormones that have been shown to be involved in the response to salt stress in cross-talk with other plant growth regulators such as polyamines (PAs). In addition, BRs are involved in the regulation of the nodulation in the rhizobium-legume symbiosis through the alteration of the PAs content in leaves. In this work, we have studied the effect of exogenous 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) in the response to salinity of nitrogen fixation in the symbiosis Medicago truncatula-Sinorhizobium meliloti. Foliar spraying of EBL restored the growth of plants subjected to salt stress and provoked an increment of the nitrogenase activity. In general, PAs levels in leaves and nodules decreased by the salt and EBL treatments, however, the co-treatment with NaCl and EBL augmented the foliar spermine (Spm) concentration. This increment of the Spm levels was followed by a reduction of the membrane oxidative damage and a diminution of the proline accumulation. The effect of BRs on the symbiotic interaction was evaluated by the addition of 0.01, 0.1 and 0.5 µM EBL to the growing solution, which provoked a reduction of the nodule number and an increment of the PAs levels in shoot. In conclusion, foliar treatment with EBL had a protective effect against salt stress in the M. truncatula-S. meliloti symbiosis mediated by an increment of the Spm levels. Treatment of roots with EBL incremented PAs levels in shoot and reduced the nodule number which suggests a cross-talk between PAs and BRs in the nodule suppression and the protection against salt stress.

24-epibrassinolide and 20-hydroxyecdysone affect photosynthesis differently in maize and spinach.

The aim of the work was to examine the effect of brassinosteroid (24-epibrassinolide; 24E) and ecdysteroid (20-hydroxyecdysone; 20E) on various parts of primary photosynthetic processes in maize and spinach. Additionally, the effect of steroids on gaseous exchange, pigment content and biomass accumulation was studied. The efficiency of the photosynthetic whole electron-transport chain responded negatively to the 24E or 20E treatment in both species, but there were interspecific differences regarding Photosystem (PS) II response. A positive effect on its oxygen-evolving complex and a slightly better energetical connectivity between PSII units were observed in maize whereas the opposite was true for spinach. The size of the pool of the PSI end electron acceptors was usually diminished due to 24E or 20E treatment. The treatment of plants with 24E or 20E applied individually positively influenced the content of photosynthetic pigments in maize (not in spinach). On the other hand, it did not affect gaseous exchange in maize but resulted in its reduction in spinach. Plants treated with combination of both steroids mostly did not significantly differ from the control plants. We have demonstrated for the first time that 20E applied in low (10nM) concentration can affect various parts of photosynthetic processes similarly to 24E and that brassinosteroids regulate not only PSII but also other parts of the photosynthetic electron transport chain - but not necessarily in the same way.

Biological activities of new monohydroxylated brassinosteroid analogues with a carboxylic group in the side chain.

Thirteen monohydroxylated brassinosteroids analogues were synthesized and tested for their biological activity in plant and animal systems. The cytotoxic activity of the products was studied using human normal and cancer cell lines with 28-homocastasterone as positive control, their brassinolide type activity was established using the bean second-internode test with 24-epibrassinolide as standard.

Hypoglycemic effects of brassinosteroid in diet-induced obese mice.

The prevalence of obesity is increasing globally, and obesity is a major risk factor for metabolic diseases such as type 2 diabetes. Previously, we reported that oral administration of homobrassinolide (HB) to healthy rats triggered a selective anabolic response that was associated with lower blood glucose. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of HB administration on glucose metabolism, insulin sensitivity, body composition, and gluconeogenic gene expression profiles in liver of C57BL/6J high-fat diet-induced obese mice. Acute oral administration of 50-300 mg/kg HB to obese mice resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in fasting blood glucose within 3 h of treatment. Daily chronic administration of HB (50 mg/kg for 8 wk) ameliorated hyperglycemia and improved oral glucose tolerance associated with obesity without significantly affecting body weight or body composition. These changes were accompanied by lower expression of two key gluconeogenic enzymes, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) and glucose-6-phosphatase (G-6-Pase), and increased phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase in the liver and muscle tissue. In vitro, HB treatment (1-15 µM) inhibited cyclic AMP-stimulated but not dexamethasone-stimulated upregulation of PEPCK and G-6-Pase mRNA levels in H4IIE rat hepatoma cells. Among a series of brassinosteroid analogs related to HB, only homocastasterone decreased glucose production in cell culture significantly. These results indicate the antidiabetic effects of brassinosteroids and begin to elucidate their putative cellular targets both in vitro and in vivo.

Brassinosteroid leaf unrolling QTL mapping in durum wheat.

Brassinosteroids are a newly reported class of plant growth phytohormones found in plants throughout the plant kingdom. Functioning at very low concentrations, they play an essential role in improving biomass yield and stress tolerance. There are no reports in the literature of the genetic variability of responsiveness of brassinosteroids in wheat; most studies on brassinosteroids have focused on the physiological effects of exogenous addition of brassinosteroids. Our aim was to study the genetic variation in the responsiveness of a doubled haploid durum wheat population to three brassinosteroid concentrations using the leaf unrolling test, which is a simple bioassay to test brassinosteroid activity. An F(1)-derived doubled haploid population of 77 individuals from the cross Strongfield/Blackbird was used to construct a genetic map of 427 molecular marker loci. The leaf unrolling test was performed on the parents and doubled haploid genotypes of the population using 0.2, 2 and 20 nM brassinosteroid concentrations. The results indicated significant differences in leaf unrolling between the two parents, doubled haploid genotypes, treatments and genotype-by-treatment combinations. Transgressive segregation beyond Strongfield of leaf unrolling was observed for all concentrations, with the strongest response at 20 nM. Putative quantitative trait loci were revealed in the intervals Xgwm2-Xbarc45 on chromosome 3A and Xwmc643a-Xwmc625a on chromosome 3B. Additional quantitative trait loci were associated with markers Xwmc48a, Xwmc511, Xwmc89a and Xgwmc692 on chromosome 4B, and Xwmc17 on chromosome 7A. This work should enhance the understanding of the relationship between stress tolerance and productivity, and responsiveness to brassinosteroids.