Isolation and characterization of Chlamydia felis and its pathogenesis in cats.

Feline upper respiratory tract disease (URTD) is a common but complicated disease that occurs in domestic cats, worldwide. 396 cats in Guangxi Province, China were screened for URTD-associated pathogens from March 2022 to August 2023. Mycoplasma felis was found to be the most prevalent infectious agent with a positivity rate of 24.75 %, followed by feline calicivirus (FCV), Chlamydia felis, feline herpesvirus 1 (FHV-1) and feline influenza A virus (FeIAV) with rates of 15.91, 11.62, 5.56 and 1.52 %, respectively. In particular, C. felis and M. felis were found in 13 of 55 co-infected cats. Of the 46 C. felis-positive samples, one strain, named as GXNN36, was successfully isolated using chicken embryos and it was characterized both in vivo and in vitro. For the cat studies, both high- and low-dose challenged groups showed severe conjunctivitis, accompanied by transient fever and respiratory symptoms. C. felis replicated well in turbinate, trachea and lung tissues with high copy numbers and the infection subsequently spread to the livers, spleens, pancreas, kidneys, hearts and intestines. These findings will help our understanding of the role of C. felis in feline URTD and provide a valuable model to evaluate the efficacy of vaccines and therapeutic remedies in the future.

Identification and genomic characterization of feline calicivirus from a leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) in Taiwan.

The leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) is an endangered wildlife that is protected under Taiwan's regulations. The body of a road-killed leopard cat was found to contain sequences of feline calicivirus (FCV), designated W109-1443. Analysis of the complete genomic sequence revealed that it shared approximately 81% similarity with a Chinese strain of FCV found in a domestic cat. Phylogenetic analysis of the VP1 gene indicated that the W109-1443 isolate belonged to genogroup II. Recombination analysis revealed that the W109-1443 isolate may have resulted from recombination between two FCV strains. Given the potential impact of FCV on the health and survival of wild felids, further investigation is necessary to assess its pathogenicity in the leopard cat population.

Detection of Mycoplasma spp. and feline calicivirus in cats with ocular surface disease.

OBJECTIVE: To survey the prevalence of pathogens in shelter-housed cats with active ocular surface disease (OSD). ANIMALS STUDIED: A total of 255 shelter-housed domestic cats with evidence of active OSD. No normal, unaffected cats were sampled. PROCEDURE(S): OSD scoring was performed on cats with active OSD. Combined oropharyngeal/conjunctival swabs were submitted for rt-PCR/PCR for feline herpesvirus (FHV-1), feline calicivirus (FCV), Chlamydia spp. (CHL), Bordetella bronchiseptica (BORD), and Mycoplasma spp. (MYC). RESULTS: Pathogens were detected as follows: 76.4% (195/255) MYC, 57.6% (147/255) FHV-1, 42.7% (109/255) FCV, 26.7% (68/255) CHL, and 5.5% (14/255) BORD. Monoinfections affected 21.1% (54/255) animals, with MYC being the most common monoinfection (12.5%, 32/255), followed by FHV-1 (4.7%, 12/255), followed by CHL (2.4%, 6/255), followed by FCV (1.6%, 4/255), with no animals having a BORD monoinfection. Dual infections affected 36.4% of animals (93/255), with MYC detected in 30.1% (77/255) dual infections and FCV detected in 12.9% (33/255) dual infections. Dual infections with MYC and FCV together were detected in 9.8% (25/255) animals. Many animals (35.3%, 90/255) were found to be affected by 3 or more pathogens, and 7.1% (18/255) animals had no pathogens detected. OSD scores were not influenced by any variable assessed, including the number and type of pathogens detected. CONCLUSION: MYC, FHV-1, FCV, and CHL were commonly detected in this group of animals with OSD. Both MYC and FCV (alone or in combination with each other) were detected in multiple animals with active OSD, supporting prior evidence that either may independently act as a primary ocular surface pathogen.

Feline Calicivirus Virulent Systemic Disease: Clinical Epidemiology, Analysis of Viral Isolates and In Vitro Efficacy of Novel Antivirals in Australian Outbreaks.

Feline calicivirus (FCV) causes upper respiratory tract disease (URTD) and sporadic outbreaks of virulent systemic disease (FCV-VSD). The basis for the increased pathogenicity of FCV-VSD viruses is incompletely understood, and antivirals for FCV-VSD have yet to be developed. We investigated the clinicoepidemiology and viral features of three FCV-VSD outbreaks in Australia and evaluated the in vitro efficacy of nitazoxanide (NTZ), 2'-C-methylcytidine (2CMC) and NITD-008 against FCV-VSD viruses. Overall mortality among 23 cases of FCV-VSD was 39%. Metagenomic sequencing identified five genetically distinct FCV lineages within the three outbreaks, all seemingly evolving in situ in Australia. Notably, no mutations that clearly distinguished FCV-URTD from FCV-VSD phenotypes were identified. One FCV-URTD strain likely originated from a recombination event. Analysis of seven amino-acid residues from the hypervariable E region of the capsid in the cultured viruses did not support the contention that properties of these residues can reliably differentiate between the two pathotypes. On plaque reduction assays, dose-response inhibition of FCV-VSD was obtained with all antivirals at low micromolar concentrations; NTZ EC50, 0.4-0.6 µM, TI = 21; 2CMC EC50, 2.7-5.3 µM, TI > 18; NITD-008, 0.5 to 0.9 µM, TI > 111. Investigation of these antivirals for the treatment of FCV-VSD is warranted.

Prevalence of feline calicivirus and the distribution of serum neutralizing antibody against isolate strains in cats of Hangzhou, China.

BACKGROUND: Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common pathogen of felids, and FCV vaccination is regularly practiced. The genetic variability and antigenic diversity of FCV hinder the effective control and prevention of infection by vaccination. Improved knowledge of the epidemiological characteristics of FCV should assist in the development of more effective vaccines. OBJECTIVES: This study aims to determine the prevalence of FCV in a population of cats with FCV-suspected clinical signs in Hangzhou and to demonstrate the antigenic and genetic relationships between vaccine status and representative isolated FCV strains. METHODS: Cats (n = 516) from Hangzhou were investigated between 2018 and 2020. The association between risk factors and FCV infection was assessed. Phylogenetic analyses based on a capsid coding sequence were performed to identify the genetic relationships between strains. In vitro virus neutralization tests were used to assess antibody levels against isolated FCV strains in client-owned cats. RESULTS: The FCV-positive rate of the examined cats was 43.0%. Risk factors significantly associated with FCV infection were vaccination status and oral symptoms. Phylogenetic analysis revealed a radial phylogeny with no evidence of temporal or countrywide clusters. There was a significant difference in the distribution of serum antibody titers between vaccinated and unvaccinated cats. CONCLUSIONS: This study revealed a high prevalence and genetic diversity of FCV in Hangzhou. The results indicate that the efficacy of FCV vaccination is unsatisfactory. More comprehensive and refined vaccination protocols are an urgent and unmet need.

Isolation and phylogenetic analysis of strains of feline calicivirus in Beijing, China.

Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a contagious cat pathogen that causes oral ulceration and/or upper respiratory disease. In this study, we collected 61 samples from a pet hospital in Beijing and used PCR or RT-PCR to detect FCV and feline herpesvirus 1 (FHV-1). Approximately 44.3% (27/61) of the samples were FCV positive, and 23.0% (14/61) were coinfected with FCV and FHV-1. FCV was isolated from 15 samples. One isolate was from a cat with virulent systemic disease (VSD) signs, and 14 isolates were from cats with stomatitis or upper respiratory diseases. The range of genome sequence identity among these isolates was 76.1-100.0%. Four of the isolates were considered to be of the same strain, with sequence identity ranging from 99.5 to 99.7%, and two isolates, BJ-280 and BJ-288, had completely identical sequences. The genomic sequence identity ranged from 76.0 to 88.5% between the 15 isolates and several reference strains, including the F4 and F9 vaccine strains. These results demonstrate that many FCV strains are co-circulating in Beijing. Due to the diversity of FCV in Beijing, it is necessary to monitor the current prevalence of the virus. This study provides more information for the development of effective measures to control FCV.

Development of a novel reverse transcription PCR and its application to field sample testing for feline calicivirus prevalence in healthy stray cats in Korea.

BACKGROUND: Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a major and highly infectious pathogen in cats worldwide. However, there have been limited studies about the status of FCV infections in Korea. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the current status of FCV infections in stray cats in Korea. METHODS: A novel reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay was developed based on the conserved nucleotide sequences of reported FCV strains. Field swab samples were collected from 122 cats (2 hospital admitted cats and 120 stray cats) in 2016 and 2017. All the samples were tested by virus isolation and 2 different RT-PCRs, including the novel RT-PCR, for the detection of FCV. RESULTS: The novel RT-PCR assay showed no cross-reactivity to the nucleic acids of the other feline pathogens tested, and the limit of detection was calculated as 10° TCID50/mL based on an in vitro assessment. The novel RT-PCR assay detected 5 positive samples from the 122 field samples, which showed perfect agreement with the results of the virus isolation method. In contrast, another RT-PCR assay used in a previous study in Korea detected no positive samples. The prevalence of FCV infection in stray cats was 2.5% (3/120) based on the results of virus isolation and the novel RT-PCR assays. CONCLUSIONS: The current study is the first report of the detection and prevalence of FCV in stray cats in Korea. The novel RT-PCR assay developed in this study showed high sensitivity and specificity, which indicates a useful diagnostic assay to identify FCV infection in cats.

High occurrence of felid alphaherpesvirus 1 and feline calicivirus in domestic cats from southern Brazil / Alta ocorrência de alphaherpesvirus felideo e calicivirus felino em gatos domésticos no Sul do Brasil

Felid alphaherpesvirus 1 (FeHV-1) and feline calicivirus (FCV) affect cats worldwide. The aim of this study was to evaluate the frequency of occurrence of FeHV-1 and FCV in cats with clinical signs of respiratory, oral and/or ocular disease. Samples were collected from cats cared for in veterinary ambulatory and clinics and submitted to molecular detection and viral isolation. Of the 49 cats evaluated, 45 (92%) were positive for at least one of the viruses; 82% (40/49) were positive for FeHV-1 and 41% (20/49) for FCV. Of these, 31% (15/49) were coinfection cases. For FeHV-1, 45% (18/40) of the cats tested were positive from the collection of eye swab, and the same percentage (9/20) was obtained for the FCV by the oral swab. FeHV-1 and/or FCV were isolated in 35% (17/49) of the samples. The main clinical sign observed was ocular secretion in 71% (35/49) of cats, characterized as mild serous, purulent or serosanguineous, and in some cases associated with ocular injury and marked chemosis. Our findings demonstrate the high occurrence of FeHV-1 and FCV in domestic cats in southern Brazil and indicate that measures should be implemented to improve the diagnostic, prevention and management against of these important diseases.(AU)

Alphaherpesvírus felídeo 1 (FeHV-1) e calicivírus felino (FCV) afetam gatos mundialmente. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar a frequência de ocorrência de FeHV-1 e FCV em gatos com sinais clínicos de doença respiratória, oral e/ou ocular. Amostras foram coletadas de gatos atendidos em ambulatório e clínicas veterinárias e submetidas à detecção molecular e isolamento viral. Dos 49 gatos avaliados, 45 (92%) foram positivos para ao menos um dos vírus; 82% (40/49) foram positivos para o FeHV-1 e 41% (20/49) para o FCV. Destes, 31% (15/49) foram casos de coinfecção. Para o FeHV-1, 45% (18/40) dos gatos foram positivos na coleta do swab ocular, e o mesmo percentual (9/20) foi obtido para o FCV a partir do swab oral. FeHV-1 e/ou FCV foram isolados em 35% (17/49) das amostras. O principal sinal clínico observado foi secreção ocular em 71% (35/49) dos gatos, caracterizada como serosa, purulenta ou serossanguinolenta e, em alguns casos, associada à lesão e quemose. Nossos resultados demonstram a alta ocorrência de FeHV-1 e FCV em gatos domésticos na região Sul do Brasil e indicam que devem ser implementadas medidas para melhorar o diagnóstico, a prevenção e o manejo contra essas importantes doenças.(AU)

Molecular and serological investigation of cat viral infectious diseases in China from 2016 to 2019.

In order to analyse the prevalence of cat viral diseases in China, including feline parvovirus (FPV), feline calicivirus (FCV), feline herpesvirus 1 (FHV-1), feline leukaemia virus (FeLV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV), a total of 1,326 samples of cats from 16 cities were investigated from 2016 to 2019. Collectively, 1,060 (79.9%) cats were tested positive for at least one virus in nucleotide detection, and the positive rates of cat exposure to FeLV, FPV, FHV-1, FCV, FIV and FIPV were 59.6%, 19.2%, 16.3%, 14.2%, 1.5% and 0.5%, respectively. The prevalence of FHV-1 and FPV was dominant in winter and spring. Cats from north China showed a higher positive rate of viral infection than that of cats from south China. The virus infection is not highly correlated with age, except that FPV is prone to occur within the age of 12 months. In the serological survey, the seroprevalences of 267 vaccinated cats to FPV, FCV and FHV-1 were 83.9%, 58.3% and 44.0%, respectively. Meanwhile, the seroprevalences of 39 unvaccinated cats to FPV, FCV and FHV-1 were 76.9% (30/39), 82.4% (28/34) and 58.6% (17/29), respectively. This study demonstrated that a high prevalence of the six viral diseases in China and the insufficient serological potency of FCV and FHV-1 remind the urgency for more effective vaccines.

Identification of feline calicivirus in cats with enteritis.

Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a major pathogen of cats associated with either respiratory disease or systemic disease, but its possible role as an enteric pathogen is neglected. Using RT-PCR, the RNA of FCV was identified in 25.9% (62/239) of stools of cats with enteritis and in 0/58 (0%) of cats without diarrhoea or other clinical signs. Isolates of enteric origin were obtained and a large 3.2-kb portion of the genome was sequenced, encompassing the 3' end of the RNA polymerase, the capsid protein precursor and the minor capsid protein. Also, the complete genome sequence of one such strain, the 160/2015/ITA, was determined. Upon sequence analysis, the enteric viruses were found to be genetically heterogeneous and to differ from each other and from isolates of respiratory origin. The enteric isolates were found to be more resistant to low pH conditions, to trypsin and to bile treatment than respiratory isolates. Overall, these findings are consistent with the hypothesis that some FCVs may acquire enteric tropism and eventually act as enteric pathogens. Whether this enteric tropism is maintained stably and whether it may affect, to some extent, the ability of the virus to trigger the classical and/or hypervirulent forms of disease should be assessed. Also, FCV should be included in the diagnostic algorithms of enteric diseases of cats to gain further information about FCV strains displaying enteric pathotype.

Effects of famciclovir in cats with spontaneous acute upper respiratory tract disease.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to assess the effects of famciclovir administration in cats with spontaneously acquired acute upper respiratory tract disease. METHODS: Twenty-four kittens with clinical signs of acute upper respiratory tract disease were randomly allocated to receive doxycycline (5 mg/kg PO q12h) alone (group D; n = 12) or with famciclovir (90 mg/kg PO q12h; group DF; n = 12) for up to 3 weeks. Clinical disease severity was scored at study entry and daily thereafter. Oculo-oropharyngeal swabs collected at study entry and exit were assessed using quantitative PCR for nucleic acids of feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1), feline calicivirus (FCV), Chlamydia felis, Bordetella bronchiseptica and Mycoplasma felis. RESULTS: The median (range) age of cats was 1.5 (1-6) months in group D vs 1.6 (1-5) months in group DF (P = 0.54). Pathogens detected in oculo-oropharyngeal swabs at study entry included FCV (n = 13/24; 54%), M felis (n = 8/24; 33%), FHV-1 (n = 7/24; 29%), C felis (n = 7/24; 29%) and B bronchiseptica (n = 3/24; 12%). Median (range) duration of clinical signs was 11.5 (3-21) days in group DF and 11 (3-21) days in group D (P = 0.75). Median (range) total disease score at the end of the study did not differ between groups (group D 1 [1-1] vs group DF 1 [1-3]; P = 0.08). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: This study revealed no significant difference in response to therapy between cats treated with doxycycline alone or with famciclovir; cats improved rapidly in both groups. However, identification of FHV-1 DNA was relatively uncommon in this study and clinical trials focused on FHV-1-infected cats are warranted to better evaluate famciclovir efficacy.

Environmental Contamination and Hygienic Measures After Feline Calicivirus Field Strain Infections of Cats in a Research Facility.

Feline calicivirus (FCV) can cause painful oral ulcerations, salivation, gingivitis/stomatitis, fever and depression in infected cats; highly virulent virus variants can lead to fatal epizootic outbreaks. Viral transmission occurs directly or indirectly via fomites. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence and viability of FCV in the environment after sequential oronasal infections of specified pathogen-free cats with two FCV field strains in a research facility. Replicating virus was detected in saliva swabs from all ten cats after the first and in four out of ten cats after the second FCV exposure using virus isolation to identify FCV shedders. In the environment, where cleaning, but no disinfection took place, FCV viral RNA was detectable using RT-qPCR on all tested items and surfaces, including cat hair. However, only very limited evidence was found of replicating virus using virus isolation. Viral RNA remained demonstrable for at least 28 days after shedding had ceased in all cats. Disinfection with 5% sodium bicarbonate (and IncidinTM Plus) and barrier measures were effective in that no viral RNA was detectable outside the cat rooms. Our findings are important for any multicat environment to optimize hygienic measures against FCV infection.

Lack of influence by endosymbiont Wolbachia on virus titer in the common bed bug, Cimex lectularius.

BACKGROUND: The common bed bug, Cimex lectularius, is an obligatory blood-feeding ectoparasite that requires a blood meal to molt and produce eggs. Their frequent biting to obtain blood meals and intimate association with humans increase the potential for disease transmission. However, despite more than 100 years of inquiry into bed bugs as potential disease vectors, they still have not been conclusively linked to any pathogen or disease. This ecological niche is extraordinarily rare, given that nearly every other blood-feeding arthropod is associated with some type of human or zoonotic disease. Bed bugs rely on the bacteria Wolbachia as an obligate endosymbiont to biosynthesize B vitamins, since they acquire a nutritionally deficient diet, but it is unknown if Wolbachia confers additional benefits to its bed bug host. In some insects, Wolbachia induces resistance to viruses such as Dengue, Chikungunya, West Nile, Drosophila C and Zika, and primes the insect immune system in other blood-feeding insects. Wolbachia might have evolved a similar role in its mutualistic association with the bed bug. In this study, we evaluated the influence of Wolbachia on virus replication within C. lectularius. METHODS: We used feline calicivirus as a model pathogen. We fed 40 bed bugs from an established line of Wolbachia-cured and a line of Wolbachia-positive C. lectularius a virus-laden blood meal, and quantified the amount of virus over five time intervals post-feeding. The antibiotic rifampicin was used to cure bed bugs of Wolbachia. RESULTS: There was a significant effect of time post-feeding, as the amount of virus declined by ~90% over 10 days in both groups, but no significant difference in virus titer was observed between the Wolbachia-positive and Wolbachia-cured groups. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that other mechanisms are involved in virus suppression within bed bugs, independent of the influence of Wolbachia, and our conclusions underscore the need for future research.

Potential distribution of viable norovirus after simulated vomiting.

BACKGROUND: Vomiting is one way in which the body rids itself of harmful gastric contents rapidly. Whilst this process is generally beneficial for the emetic individual, it can pose significant infection control issues if they are infected with a highly communicable pathogen such as norovirus. It is not known how far norovirus could spread through vomiting while remaining viable, particularly in far-reaching droplets and splashes that might be missed during cleaning. AIM: To identify the potential level of dissemination of viable norovirus after simulated vomiting. METHODS: This study used a system called 'Vomiting Larry' to simulate vomiting with infection medium containing the norovirus surrogate feline calicivirus (FCV) as a worst-case scenario for distribution and survival of viruses after simulated vomiting. Air and floor samples were taken after simulated vomiting, and analysed for viable virus via plaque assay. Analysis of covariance investigated differences in FCV concentration by sample volume and location. FINDINGS: Whilst viable virus was not isolated from any air samples taken after simulated vomiting, FCV concentrations of ≥10 plaque-forming units/mL were recovered from almost all samples taken from the floor (88/90). These included small droplets of fluid that travelled 3 m away from the vomiting system. There was evidence that FCV concentration depended on both sample volume and location. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that norovirus can survive being ejected even within small far-reaching droplets at concentrations capable of eliciting infection. Such droplets could easily go unnoticed and be overlooked during cleaning, adding to the challenge of controlling norovirus outbreaks.

Feline upper respiratory tract infection and disease in Australia.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to conduct a comprehensive assessment of feline infectious upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) and disease (URTD) in Australian cats. METHODS: Laboratory data demonstrating URTI from feline URTD multiplex PCR panel (feline herpesvirus 1 [FHV-1], feline calicivirus [FCV], Bordetella bronchiseptica, Chlamydophila felis, Mycoplasma felis and H1N1 influenza) submissions in Australia (2013-2015) were obtained. For comparison, reports of feline URTD during the same time period were sourced from a voluntary companion animal disease surveillance system. RESULTS: A total of 3126 samples were submitted for testing; 1533 (49%) were positive. Of these, the most commonly detected agents were M felis (21.5%) and FCV (16.0%) alone, followed by FCV and M felis (13.4%) together as a respiratory infection complex, then FHV-1 (7.0%) alone. During the study period, there were 262 reports of 320 clinical feline URTD cases. Most cases (69%) were reported from New South Wales, <1 year of age (41%) and equally distributed between the sexes. Infection was more common in entire cats (69%) and most cases (55%) involved domestic shorthair cats. Of the 90 reports that had a known vaccination status, 63 had a vaccination history, 40 of which were recently vaccinated. Most (72%) feline URTD cases recovered from clinical disease. Both feline URTI and URTD were more common during winter months. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Feline URTI and URTD cause substantial impact in Australia, being most commonly associated with M felis and FCV infection. This information can be used by veterinarians to educate clients about prevention and management of this important infectious disease of cats.

Molecular characterization of feline calicivirus variants from multicat household and public animal shelter in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to perform the molecular characterization of conserved and variable regions of feline calicivirus capsid genome in order to investigate the molecular diversity of variants in Brazilian cat population. Twenty-six conjunctival samples from cats living in five public short-term animal shelters and three multicat life-long households were analyzed. Fifteen cats had conjunctivitis, three had oral ulceration, eight had respiratory signs (cough, sneeze and nasal discharge) and nine were asymptomatic. Feline calicivirus were isolated in CRFK cells and characterized by reverse transcription PCR target to both conserved and variable regions of open reading frame 2. The amplicons obtained were sequenced. A phylogenetic analysis along with most of the prototypes available in GenBank database and an amino acid analysis were performed. Phylogenetic analysis based on both conserved and variable region revealed two clusters with an aLTR value of 1.00 and 0.98 respectively and the variants from this study belong to feline calicivirus genogroup I. No association between geographical distribution and/or clinical signs and clustering in phylogenetic tree was observed. The variants circulating in public short-term animal shelter demonstrated a high variability because of the relatively rapid turnover of carrier cats constantly introduced of multiple viruses into this location over time.

An efficient recovery method for enteric viral particles from agricultural soils.

Enteric viruses have been recognized as the leading cause of non-bacterial gastroenteritis and hepatitis outbreaks around the world. Understanding their prevalence and persistence in the environment is important for the effective control of these infections. The aim of this study was to develop an efficient recovery procedure for viral infectious particles from agricultural soils. Samples (25 g) of soil (black earth soil, loamy soil, and sandy soil) were spiked with murine norovirus (MNV) and feline calicivirus (FCV), mixed with five different buffers and viral genetic material was extracted by 3 commercial kits. The combination consisted by the modified Eagle's medium buffer followed by Dynabeads nucleic acid extraction kit, when the detection is conducted by molecular biology, has been identified as being the most effective procedure to preserve the viral particle infectivity and also to remove PCR inhibitors. The recovery percentages of infectious MNV for the 3 types of soils were 54.3%, 54.4%, and 56.9%. In contrast, the titres of the FCV varied depending on the type of soil, and the recovery percentages were 47.8% in the black soil, 15.6% in the loamy soil, and 17.7% in the sandy soil. Also, the results presented in this study highlight the importance of using an internal process control such as artificial inoculation with MNV at known concentrations during detection by molecular methods, in order to avoid the occurrence of false negative reactions.

Preventing the spread of norovirus-like infections by the airborne route using plasma assisted catalytic technology (PACT).

Zoonoses are frequently reported, and outbreaks of the highly pathogenic influenza virus, severe acute respiratory syndrome, and Middle East respiratory syndrome have occurred recently, in Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. Sterilization using a chemical reactor with plasma assisted catalytic technology (PACT) was investigated. Tests were carried out on the feline calicivirus (FCV) vaccine strain F9, which is a surrogate of airborne pathogen human norovirus. Results showed that the PACT device could inactivate FCV, which passed through the plasma chamber. Sterilization rate may be more than 99.99% (below the detection limit). These results indicate that PACT may be an effective mean to inactivate many viruses, including human norovirus, and potentially other airborne, infectious microorganisms.

Comparative Recovery of Two Human Norovirus Surrogates, Feline Calicivirus and Murine Norovirus, with a Wet Vacuum System, Macrofoam-Tipped Swab, and Bottle Extraction Method from Carpets.

Human noroviruses (HuNoV) are the leading cause of known foodborne illness in the United States, but direct detection during outbreak investigations is challenging. On the other hand, sampling both hard and soft environmental surfaces can be used to improve outbreak investigations. Currently, we lack virus recovery methods for soft surfaces, such as carpet, despite evidence suggesting that carpets contribute to HuNoV outbreaks. Our aim was to compare two recovery methods, wet vacuum and swabbing, for routine carpet sampling of HuNoV against a laboratory reference method known as bottle extraction (BE). Specifically, we compared the microbial vacuum (MVAC), macrofoam-tipped swab (MS), and BE by using HuNoV surrogates, feline calicivirus (FCV) and murine norovirus (MNV), inoculated on wool and nylon carpet carriers. The highest recovery of infectious FCV from wool was 5.51, 3.76, and 5.16 log PFU, whereas on nylon, recovery was 5.03, 3.62, and 4.75 log PFU by using BE, MS, and MVAC, respectively. On the other hand, the highest recovery of infectious MNV from wool was 6.10, 4.50, and 5.99 log PFU, while recovery on nylon was 6.07, 4.58, and 6.13 log PFU by using BE, MS, and MVAC, respectively. Significantly more PFU and genomic copies were recovered by using BE and MVAC compared with MS, while buffer type played a significant role in recovery of infectious FCV.

Integrated molecular analysis of the inactivation of a non-enveloped virus, feline calicivirus, by UV-C radiation.

UV-C treatment has been shown to be a powerful way to inactivate non-enveloped viruses in water samples. However, little is known about how the viruses were inactivated by UV-C radiation. In this study, we investigated the inactivation mechanism of a single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) non-enveloped virus, feline calicivirus (FCV), as a surrogate for the human norovirus, using UV-C radiation with different wavelengths. Integrated molecular analyses using RT-qPCR, sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), and mass spectrometry were employed to evaluate the extent of ssRNA genome and protein degradation. UV-C radiation of FCV efficiently impaired the infectivity of FCV in mammalian cells. We also identified degradation of the RNA genome, whose copy numbers decreased from 48% to 56% following UV255 or UV281 radiation. Significant degradation of capsid protein was not observed, whereas oxidation of amino acid residues in the major capsid protein VP-1 was determined. Our results suggest that damage to the RNA genome is primarily responsible for the observed decrease in FCV infectivity of CRFK cells. This study provides not only relevant baseline data but also an overview and possible mechanism for the disinfection of non-enveloped ssRNA viruses using UV-C radiation.