Sexual conflict in protandrous flowers and the evolution of gynodioecy.

Sexual interference between male and female function in hermaphrodite plants is reduced by protandry. In environments with insufficient pollinator service, prolongation of male function owing to limited pollen removal could restrict the duration of female function and lower seed production. We provide evidence that this form of sexual conflict has played a role in the spread of females in gynodioecious populations of Cyananthus delavayi in the pollen-limited environments in which this subalpine species occurs. Using field experiments involving artificial pollen removal from the strongly protandrous flowers of hermaphrodites, we demonstrated a trade-off between male- and female-phase duration with no influence on overall floral longevity. Pollen removal at the beginning of anthesis resulted in hermaphrodite seed production matching that of females. In contrast, restricted pollen removal increased the duration of male function at the expense of female function lowering maternal fertility compared to females. This pattern was evident in five populations with females experiencing a twofold average seed fertility advantage compared to hermaphrodites. Gynodioecy often appears to evolve from protandrous ancestors and pollen limitation is widespread in flowering plants suggesting that sexual conflict may play an unappreciated role in the evolution of this form of sexual dimorphism.

A gradient of pollination specialization in three species of Bolivian Centropogon.

PREMISE: Closely related plant species with overlapping ranges often experience competition for pollination services. Such competition can select for divergence in floral traits that attract pollinators or determine pollen placement. While most species in Centropogon (Campanulaceae: Lobelioideae) have flowers that suggest adaptation to bat or hummingbird pollination, actual pollinators are rarely documented, and a few species have a mix of traits from both pollination syndromes. We studied the pollination biology of a "mixed-syndrome" species and its co-occurring congeners to examine the relationship between floral traits and visitation patterns for Centropogon. METHODS: Fieldwork at two sites in Bolivian cloud forests involved filming floral visitors, quantifying pollen transfer, and measuring floral traits. Stamen exsertion, which determines pollen placement, was measured from herbarium specimens across the geographic range of these species to test for character displacement. RESULTS: Results show a generalization gradient, from primarily bat pollination in white-flowered Centropogon incanus, to bat pollination with secondary hummingbird pollination in the cream-flowered C. brittonianus, to equal reliance on both pollinators in the red-flowered, mixed-syndrome C. mandonis. Pollen transfer between these species is further reduced by differences in stamen exsertion that are accentuated in zones of sympatry, a pattern consistent with character displacement. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that key differences in floral color and shape mediate a gradient of specialization in Bolivian Centropogon. Interspecific pollen transfer is further reduced by potential character displacement of a key trait. Broadly, our results have implications for understanding the hyper-diversity of Andean cloud forests, in which multiple species of the same genus frequently co-occur.

Dynamics of secondary pollen presentation in Campanula medium (Campanulaceae).

After several decades of research, dynamics and patterns of mating system in floral evolution remain incompletely understood, especially with regards to strategies that combine both outcrossing and selfing, as frequently recorded in the genus Campanula. Data about temporal and spatial dynamics of secondary pollen presentation are still scarce in literature: we investigated them using Campanula medium (Campanulaceae) as case study. Experimental pollinations were conducted under natural conditions, to characterise the breeding system of this species. Effects on stigma opening and stigma receptivity of stylar pollen presence were investigated in manipulated flowers. The temporal dynamics and fitness of male and female functional phases were estimated. Flower visitors and their interactions with sexual parts of the flower were also annotated. C. medium is xenogamous and self-incompatible, with a clear temporal separation between sexual functional phases. Floral lifespan is shortened by experimental outcrossing. Removal of pollen from the style shortened the time span of male function. Pollen viability was highest at the beginning of the anthesis, decreasing during the flowering period, whereas stigmatic receptivity shows an opposite trend. We found a severe pollen limitation in the studied population. Bees were the most frequent floral visitors. In some of these insects we observed stereotyped interactions with the reproductive structures of the flower, in particular with the pollen, exposed along the upper and median portion of the style. Sexual phases in C. medium are inversely correlated and finely spatially and temporally coordinated, since stigma maturation is scalar along its length and depends on pollen presence on the style. Overall, our findings push forward the knowledge on reproductive strategies in Campanula.

Effects of glaciation and whole genome duplication on the distribution of the Campanula rotundifolia polyploid complex.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Both intrinsic and extrinsic factors contribute to a species distribution. Among plants, the extrinsic effects of glaciation and intrinsic effects of whole genome duplication are powerful drivers of biogeographical patterns, but the interplay of these factors is poorly understood. Here, we investigate the roles glaciation and whole-genome duplication have played in the evolution of the widespread polyploid complex Campanula rotundifolia. METHODS: We assessed the cytotype of 37 populations that spanned the geographic and cytotypic range of the C. rotundifolia complex. We constructed a chloroplast phylogeny for these populations and used RAD-seq to create nuclear phylogenies and networks for a subset of 23 populations; and estimated divergence times of major clades using Bayesian estimation of substitution rates. KEY RESULTS: Campanula rotundifolia originated in south-central Europe and underwent range expansion throughout much of Europe and North America. Multiple genome duplications have occurred in C. rotundifolia-at least two tetraploid and three hexaploid formations. CONCLUSIONS: Nuclear and chloroplast phylogenies are largely congruent with a history of populations surviving glacial maxima in known Pleistocene refugia in Europe and North America. Divergent European clades are consistent with two disjunct glacial refugia within Europe. North America was colonized by hexaploids derived from Western European lineages. A glacial refugium in Midwestern North America likely facilitated post-glacial recolonization of North America and limited genetic divergence. These results implicate both glaciation and whole-genome duplication as contributing factors to the extant biogeography of C. rotundifolia.

The role of phenotypic plasticity and pollination environment in the cleistogamous, mixed mating breeding system of Triodanis perfoliata.

The role of variable pollination environments in maintaining mixed mating systems is an active area of research. Dimorphic cleistogamy, in which a plant reproduces by both open, facultative outcrossing chasmogamous (CH) flowers and closed, cleistogamous (CL) flowers presents an excellent opportunity to study mixed mating. For example, plastic responses in allocation to an optimal floral type could serve as an adaptive strategy that maintains mixed mating under variable pollination environments. We tested for pollen limitation and plastic responses in allocation to different floral types under manipulated pollination conditions in the dimorphic cleistogamous, mixed mating annual, Triodanis perfoliata. Using a field population, we quantified pollen limitation, auto-fertility and plastic responses in the breeding system by measuring allocation to flower number and seed set of floral types. We found no evidence for pollen limitation for CH flowers, and CH flowers had low efficacy of autonomous selfing. Importantly, we found that T. perfoliata alters floral number following changes in pollination conditions, with pollen-supplemented plants having lower relative CH flower number than non-supplemented plants. Breeding system plasticity may allow for benefits from outcrossing through CH flowers, but also increased overall fitness through relatively cheap CL reproduction. After CH flowers receive pollen, subsequent production of CH flowers was reduced, which may be due to resource limitation. Our findings did not support a theoretical model predicting increased CH flowers with high pollination levels. These results increase our understanding of the role of pollination services and resource allocation in the maintenance of mixed mating systems, which also warrants further investigation.

Linking pollinator efficiency to patterns of pollen limitation: small bees exploit the plant-pollinator mutualism.

Seemingly mutualistic relationships can be exploited, in some cases reducing fitness of the exploited species. In plants, the insufficient receipt of pollen limits reproduction. While infrequent pollination commonly underlies pollen limitation (PL), frequent interactions with low-efficiency, exploitative pollinators may also cause PL. In the widespread protandrous herb Campanula americana, visitation by three pollinators explained 63% of the variation in PL among populations spanning the range. Bumblebees and the medium-sized Megachile campanulae enhanced reproductive success, but small solitary bees exacerbated PL. To dissect mechanisms behind these relationships, we scored sex-specific floral visitation, and the contributions of each pollinator to plant fitness using single flower visits. Small bees and M. campanulae overvisited male-phase flowers, but bumblebees frequently visited female-phase flowers. Fewer bumblebee visits were required to saturate seed set compared to other bees. Scaling pollinator efficiency metrics to populations, small bees deplete large amounts of pollen due to highly male-biased flower visitation and infrequent pollen deposition. Thus, small bees reduce plant reproduction by limiting pollen available for transfer by efficient pollinators, and appear to exploit the plant-pollinator mutualism, acting as functional parasites to C. americana It is therefore unlikely that small bees will compensate for reproductive failure in C. americana when bumblebees are scarce.

A tale of two forests: ongoing aridification drives population decline and genetic diversity loss at continental scale in Afro-Macaronesian evergreen-forest archipelago endemics.

Background and Aims: Various studies and conservationist reports have warned about the contraction of the last subtropical Afro-Macaronesian forests. These relict vegetation zones have been restricted to a few oceanic and continental islands around the edges of Africa, due to aridification. Previous studies on relict species have generally focused on glacial effects on narrow endemics; however, little is known about the effects of aridification on the fates of previously widespread subtropical lineages. Methods: Nuclear microsatellites and ecological niche modelling were used to understand observed patterns of genetic diversity in two emblematic species, widely distributed in these ecosystems: Canarina eminii (a palaeoendemic of the eastern Afromontane forests) and Canarina canariensis (a palaeoendemic of the Canarian laurel forests). The software DIYABC was used to test alternative demographic scenarios and an ensemble method was employed to model potential distributions of the selected plants from the end of the deglaciation to the present. Key Results: All the populations assessed experienced a strong and recent population decline, revealing that locally widespread endemisms may also be alarmingly threatened. Conclusions: The detected extinction debt, as well as the extinction spiral to which these populations are subjected, demands urgent conservation measures for the unique, biodiversity-rich ecosystems that they inhabit.

Timing is everything: Dichogamy and pollen germinability underlie variation in autonomous selfing among populations.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: The evolution of multiple floral traits often underlies the transition from outcrossing to selfing. Such traits can influence the ability to self, and the timing at which selfing occurs, which in turn affects the costs of selfing. Species that display variation in autonomous selfing provide an opportunity to dissect the phenotypic changes that contribute to variability in the mating system. METHODS: In a common garden, we measured dichogamy and herkogamy in 24 populations of the protandrous mixed-mating herb Campanula americana, and related these to autonomous fruit set (autonomy). We then measured the timing of self-pollen deposition and fruit production in populations with high and low autonomy, and determined whether pollen germinability across floral development contributes to variation in autonomy. KEY RESULTS: Populations that transitioned more rapidly to female phase displayed elevated autonomous selfing, but herkogamy was unassociated with autonomous selfing. Selfing occurred more rapidly in highly autonomous populations because of greater self-pollen deposition early in female phase. Pollen germinability in low-autonomy populations remained constant across floral development, but in high-autonomy populations it increased after floral anthesis and was highest near the onset of female phase. CONCLUSIONS: Reduced dichogamy, elevated self-pollen deposition, and higher pollen germination late in male phase contribute to both earlier selfing and greater selfing. These traits vary among populations, likely reflecting past selection on the mating system. While delayed selfing bears fewer fitness costs, the evolution of earlier selfing may be favored if self-pollen availability decreases over floral development.

Intercontinental dispersal and whole-genome duplication contribute to loss of self-incompatibility in a polyploid complex.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Angiosperm species often shift from self-incompatibility to self-compatibility following population bottlenecks. Across the range of a species, population bottlenecks may result from multiple factors, each of which may affect the geographic distribution and magnitude of mating-system shifts. We describe how intercontinental dispersal and genome duplication facilitate loss of self-incompatibility. METHODS: Self and outcross pollinations were performed on plants from 24 populations of the Campanula rotundifolia polyploid complex. Populations spanned the geographic distribution and three dominant cytotypes of the species (diploid, tetraploid, hexaploid). KEY RESULTS: Loss of self-incompatibility was associated with both intercontinental dispersal and genome duplication. European plants were largely self-incompatible, whereas North American plants were intermediately to fully self-compatible. Within both European and North American populations, loss of self-incompatibility increased as ploidy increased. Ploidy change and intercontinental dispersal both contributed to loss of self-incompatibility in North America, but range expansion did not affect self-incompatibility within Europe or North America. CONCLUSIONS: When species are subject to population bottlenecks arising through multiple factors, each factor can contribute to self-incompatibility loss. In a widespread polyploid complex, the loss of self-incompatibility can be predicted by the cumulative effects of whole-genome duplication and intercontinental dispersal.

Geographic variation in pollen color is associated with temperature stress.

The evolution of flower color, especially petal pigmentation, has received substantial attention. Less understood is the evolutionary ecology of pollen pigmentation, though it varies among and within species and its biochemical properties affect pollen viability. We characterize the distribution of pollen color across 24 populations of the North American herb Campanula americana, and assess the degree to which this variation is genetically based. We identify abiotic factors that covary with pollen color and test whether germination of light and dark pollen is differentially affected by variable temperature and UV. Pollen color varies from white to deep purple in C. americana and is genetically determined. There was a longitudinal cline whereby pollen was darkest in western populations. Accounting for latitudinal variation, western populations experience elevated temperature and UV irradiance. Germination of light-colored pollen was reduced by 60% under high temperature, but dark pollen was unaffected. Exposure to UV reduced germination of light and dark pollen similarly. The cline in pollen color across the range may reflect adaptation to heat stress. This study supports thermal tolerance as a novel function of pollen pigmentation and contributes to growing evidence that abiotic factors can drive floral diversity.

Does stigma curvature promote delayed selfing? An experimental investigation in Triodanis perfoliata (Campanulaceae).

Self-fertilisation that is delayed until after opportunities for outcrossing have ceased has been argued to provide both the reproductive assurance benefits of selfing and the genetic advantages of outcrossing. In the Campanulaceae, presentation of pollen on stylar hairs and progressive stigma curvature have been hypothesised to facilitate delayed selfing, but experimental tests are lacking. Stigma curvature is common in Campanula, a genus largely characterised by self-incompatibility, and therefore is unlikely to have initially evolved to promote self-fertilisation. In derived self-compatible species, however, stigma curvature might serve the secondary function of delayed selfing. We investigated delayed selfing in Triodanis perfoliata, a self-compatible relative of Campanula. Using floral manipulation experiments and pollen tube observations, we quantified the extent and timing of self-pollination. Further, we hypothesised that, if stigma curvature provides the benefit of delayed selfing in Triodanis, selection should have favoured retention of self-pollen through the loss of a stylar hair retraction mechanism. Results of a stigma removal experiment indicated that autonomous selfing produces partial seed set, but only some selfing was delayed. Pollen tube observations and a flower senescence assay also supported the finding of partial delayed selfing. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that pollen-collecting hairs retract during anthesis, which may limit the extent of delayed selfing. Delayed selfing appeared to be only partially effective in T. perfoliata. The stylar hair retraction in this species would seem to contradict selection for selfing. We suggest that caution and rigour are needed in interpreting floral traits as adaptive mechanisms for delayed selfing.

Sex allocation in gynodioecious Cyananthus delavayi differs between gender morphs and soil quality.

KEY MESSAGE: Sex allocation in Cyananthus delavayi. Gynodioecy, where females and hermaphrodites coexist in the same natural population, is particularly suitable for predicting the ecological pressures that drive the stability of gender polymorphism. Since females have a disadvantage in that they only contribute to the next generation via ovules, they should gain an advantage via other means, of which resource allocation is an important component. Thus, to study their sex allocation is very helpful to understand how the dimorphic sexual system is maintained in natural systems. We studied the sex allocation patterns and reproductive output of the gynodioecious Cyananthus delavayi in three populations with different soil qualities (organic matter, N, P and K). The hermaphroditic flowers and pistils were much larger than those of female individuals. Although both gender morphs invested similar biomass in the pistils, females allocated more of their resource pool to the seed production, while hermaphrodites allocated more to pollinator advertisement. The pollen production of hermaphrodites did not differ between populations, suggesting that pollen production by hermaphrodites was not limited by soil nutrients. Fruit set of females, but not hermaphrodites, decreased with declining soil quality, whereas seeds per fruit of both females and hermaphrodites were highest in poor soils. Overall, this study shows that females achieve greater reproductive success by allocating more of their resource pool to enhancing seed production, which should favor their presence in gynodioecious populations. The hermaphrodites achieve reproductive success from both pollen and seed production, and unnecessarily reduce their allocation to pollen production. Soil quality should explain, at least partially, the sexual allocation patterns. Furthermore, some of our findings contradict previous hypotheses, thus adding a new example to the body of research on plant sex allocation and the development of future theories.

Hidden floral adaptation to nocturnal moths in an apparently bee-pollinated flower, Adenophora triphylla var. japonica (Campanulaceae).

The discrepancy between observed flower visitors and those predicted based on floral phenotype has often cast doubt on the pollination syndrome concept. Here we show that this paradox may be alleviated by gaining better knowledge of the contributions of different flower visitors to pollination and the effects of floral traits that cannot be readily perceived by humans in Adenophora triphylla var. japonica. The blue, bell-shaped and pendant flowers of A. triphylla appear to fit a bee pollination syndrome. In contrast to this expectation, recent studies show that these flowers are frequented by nocturnal moths. We compared the flower visitor fauna, their visitation frequency and their relative contributions to seed set between day and night in two field populations of A. triphylla in Japan. We also determined the floral traits associated with temporal changes in the visitor assemblage, i.e. the timing of anthesis, the timing of changes in the sexual phase and the diel pattern of nectar production. While A. triphylla flowers were visited by both diurnal and nocturnal insects, the results from pollination experiments demonstrate that their primary pollinators are nocturnal settling-moths. Moreover, the flowers opened just after sunset, changed from staminate to pistillate phase in successive evenings and produced nectar only during the night, which all conform to the activity of nocturnal/crepuscular moths. Our study illustrates that the tradition of stereotyping the pollinators of a flower based on its appearance can be misleading and that it should be improved with empirical evidence of pollination performance and sufficient trait matching.

Cytonuclear incompatibility contributes to the early stages of speciation.

Genetic incompatibility is a hallmark of speciation. Cytonuclear incompatibilities are proposed to be among the first genetic barriers to arise during speciation. Accordingly, reproductive isolation (RI) within species should be heavily influenced by interactions between the organelle and nuclear genomes. However, there are few clear examples of cytonuclear incompatibility within a species. Here, we show substantial postzygotic RI in first-generation hybrids between differentiated populations of an herbaceous plant (up to 92% reduction in fitness). RI was primarily due to germination and survival, with moderate RI for pollen viability. RI for survival was asymmetric and caused by cytonuclear incompatibility, with the strength of incompatibility linearly related to chloroplast genetic distance. This cytonuclear incompatibility may be the result of a rapidly evolving plastid genome. Substantial asymmetric RI was also found for germination, but was not associated with cytonuclear incompatibility, indicating endosperm or maternal-zygote incompatibilities. These results demonstrate that cytonuclear incompatibility contributes to RI within species, suggesting that initial rates of speciation could be influenced by rates of organelle evolution. However, other genetic incompatibilities are equally important, indicating that even at early stages, speciation can be a complex process involving multiple genes and incompatibilities.

Distinct germination response of endangered and common arable weeds to reduced water potential.

Arable weeds are one of the most endangered species groups in Europe. Modern agriculture and intensive land-use management are the main causes of their dramatic decline. However, besides the changes in land use, climate change may further challenge the adaptability of arable weeds. Therefore, we investigated the response pattern of arable weeds to different water potential and temperature regimes during the phase of germination. We expected that endangered arable weeds would be more sensitive to differences in water availability and temperature than common arable weeds. To this end, we set up a climate chamber experiment where we exposed seeds of five familial pairs of common and endangered arable weed species to different temperatures (5/15, 10/20 °C) and water potentials (0.0 to -1.2 MPa). The results revealed a significant relationship between the reaction of arable weed species to water availability and their Red List status. The effects of reduced water availability on total germination, mean germination time and synchrony were significantly stronger in endangered than in common arable weeds. Therefore, global climate change may present a further threat to the survival of endangered arable weed species.

Parasites in bloom: flowers aid dispersal and transmission of pollinator parasites within and between bee species.

The dispersal of parasites is critical for epidemiology, and the interspecific vectoring of parasites when species share resources may play an underappreciated role in parasite dispersal. One of the best examples of such a situation is the shared use of flowers by pollinators, but the importance of flowers and interspecific vectoring in the dispersal of pollinator parasites is poorly understood and frequently overlooked. Here, we use an experimental approach to show that during even short foraging periods of 3 h, three bumblebee parasites and two honeybee parasites were dispersed effectively onto flowers by their hosts, and then vectored readily between flowers by non-host pollinator species. The results suggest that flowers are likely to be hotspots for the transmission of pollinator parasites and that considering potential vector, as well as host, species will be of general importance for understanding the distribution and transmission of parasites in the environment and between pollinators.

Spatiotemporal variation in deer browse and tolerance in a woodland herb.

Herbivory can shape the dynamics of plant populations, including effects on survival and reproduction, and is in turn affected by environmental factors that vary in space and time. White-tailed deer are significant herbivores in North America that have been broadly documented to affect plant reproductive success. If variation in the frequency and impact of herbivory by deer correlates with a broad-scale latitudinal gradient, climactic effects may be important for shaping plant-herbivore interactions, Alternatively, a lack of broad-scale gradients would suggest local factors such as plant community composition and deer densities are affecting herbivory. To investigate broad-scale patterns of deer herbivory, we examined the frequency and reproductive consequences of deer browse over three years in 17 populations of Campanulastrum americanum spanning the latitudinal extent of its range. Even though deer are overabundant throughout the range of C. americanum, we found spatiotemporal variation in deer browse frequency (0-0.96, mean 0.46) and its effects on plant reproductive success. The four southernmost populations experienced high levels of herbivory, and were responsible for generating a negative relationship between latitude and herbivory. In general, patterns of variation in the frequency and impact of herbivory across the entire latitudinal gradient pointed to the importance of local rather than broad-scale factors. Within a population, deer consumed larger plants. Across many populations and years, average fitnesses of browsed and uneaten plants were similar, suggesting that plants are tolerant to browse. However, since large plants have greater reproductive success and are more likely to be browsed, tolerance may be influenced by plant size. When plant size was accounted for, most populations did not fully compensate for browsing. There was no relationship between browsing intensity and tolerance, suggesting that browsing may be too variable to consistently select for tolerance, or that increases in deer density are too recent for increased tolerance to evolve.

Visual and Olfactory Floral Cues of Campanula (Campanulaceae) and Their Significance for Host Recognition by an Oligolectic Bee Pollinator.

Oligolectic bees collect pollen from a few plants within a genus or family to rear their offspring, and are known to rely on visual and olfactory floral cues to recognize host plants. However, studies investigating whether oligolectic bees recognize distinct host plants by using shared floral cues are scarce. In the present study, we investigated in a comparative approach the visual and olfactory floral cues of six Campanula species, of which only Campanula lactiflora has never been reported as a pollen source of the oligolectic bee Ch. rapunculi. We hypothesized that the flowers of Campanula species visited by Ch. rapunculi share visual (i.e. color) and/or olfactory cues (scents) that give them a host-specific signature. To test this hypothesis, floral color and scent were studied by spectrophotometric and chemical analyses, respectively. Additionally, we performed bioassays within a flight cage to test the innate color preference of Ch. rapunculi. Our results show that Campanula flowers reflect the light predominantly in the UV-blue/blue bee-color space and that Ch. rapunculi displays a strong innate preference for these two colors. Furthermore, we recorded spiroacetals in the floral scent of all Campanula species, but Ca. lactiflora. Spiroacetals, rarely found as floral scent constituents but quite common among Campanula species, were recently shown to play a key function for host-flower recognition by Ch. rapunculi. We conclude that Campanula species share some visual and olfactory floral cues, and that neurological adaptations (i.e. vision and olfaction) of Ch. rapunculi innately drive their foraging flights toward host flowers. The significance of our findings for the evolution of pollen diet breadth in bees is discussed.

Light-induced plasticity in leaf hydraulics, venation, anatomy, and gas exchange in ecologically diverse Hawaiian lobeliads.

Leaf hydraulic conductance (Kleaf ) quantifies the capacity of a leaf to transport liquid water and is a major constraint on light-saturated stomatal conductance (gs ) and photosynthetic rate (Amax ). Few studies have tested the plasticity of Kleaf and anatomy across growth light environments. These provided conflicting results. The Hawaiian lobeliads are an excellent system to examine plasticity, given the striking diversity in the light regimes they occupy, and their correspondingly wide range of Amax , allowing maximal carbon gain for success in given environments. We measured Kleaf , Amax , gs and leaf anatomical and structural traits, focusing on six species of lobeliads grown in a common garden under two irradiances (300/800 µmol photons m(-2)  s(-1) ). We tested hypotheses for light-induced plasticity in each trait based on expectations from optimality. Kleaf , Amax , and gs differed strongly among species. Sun/shade plasticity was observed in Kleaf , Amax, and numerous traits relating to lamina and xylem anatomy, venation, and composition, but gs was not plastic with growth irradiance. Species native to higher irradiance showed greater hydraulic plasticity. Our results demonstrate that a wide set of leaf hydraulic, stomatal, photosynthetic, anatomical, and structural traits tend to shift together during plasticity and adaptation to diverse light regimes, optimizing performance from low to high irradiance.

A sexually dimorphic corolla appendage affects pollen removal and floral longevity in gynodioecious Cyananthus delavayi (Campanulaceae).

The floral traits of bisexual flowers may evolve in response to selection on both male and female functions, but the relative importance of selection associated with each of these two aspects is poorly resolved. Sexually dimorphic traits in plants with unisexual flowers may reflect gender-specific selection, providing opportunities for gaining an increased understanding of the evolution of specific floral traits. We examined sexually dimorphic patterns of floral traits in perfect and female flowers of the gynodioecious species Cyananthus delavayi. A special corolla appendage, the throat hair, was investigated experimentally to examine its influences on male and female function. We found that perfect flowers have larger corollas and much longer throat hairs than female flowers, while female ones have much exerted stigmas. The presence of throat hairs prolonged the duration of pollen presentation by restricting the amount of pollen removed by pollen-collecting bees during each visit. Floral longevity was negatively related to the rate of pollen removal. When pollen removal rate was limited in perfect flowers, the duration of the female phases diminished with the increased male phase duration. There was a weak negative correlation between throat hair length and seed number per fruit in female flowers, but this correlation was not significant in perfect flowers. These results suggest that throat hairs may enhance male function in terms of prolonged pollen presentation. However, throat hairs have no obvious effect on female function in terms of seed number per fruit. The marked sexual dimorphism of this corolla appendage in C. delavayi is likely to have evolved and been maintained by gender-specific selection.