Utility Decrements Associated With Diabetes and Related Complications: Estimates From a Population-Based Study in Germany.

OBJECTIVES: Health utility decrement estimates for diabetes and complications are needed for parametrization of simulation models that aim to assess the cost-utility of diabetes prevention and care strategies. This study estimates health utility decrements associated with diabetes and cardiovascular and microvascular complications from a population-based German study. METHODS: Data were obtained from the population based cross-sectional KORA (Cooperative Health Research in the Augsburg Region) health questionnaire 2016 and comprised n = 1072 individuals with type 2 diabetes and n = 7879 individuals without diabetes. Health utility was assessed through the EQ-5D-5L. We used linear regression models with interaction terms between type 2 diabetes and different cardiovascular and microvascular complications while adjusting for demographic and socio-economic factors and other comorbidities. RESULTS: Type 2 diabetes (ß = -0.028, standard error [SE] = 0.014), stroke (ß = -0.070, SE = 0.010), cardiac arrhythmia (ß = -0.031, SE = 0.006), heart failure (ß = -0.073, SE = 0.009), coronary heart disease (ß = -0.028, SE = 0.010), myocardial infarction (ß = -0.020, SE = 0.011, estimates of main effect), and neuropathy (ß = -0.067, SE = 0.020), diabetic foot (ß = -0.042, SE = 0.030), nephropathy (ß = -0.032, SE = 0.025), and blindness (ß = -0.094, SE = 0.056, estimates of interaction terms) were negatively associated with health utility. The interaction term for diabetes x stroke (ß = -0.052, SE = 0.021) showed that the utility decrement for stroke is significantly larger in people with type 2 diabetes than in people without diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: Diabetes, cardiovascular, and microvascular conditions are associated with significant health utility decrements. Utility decrements for some conditions differ between people with and without type 2 diabetes. These results are of high relevance for the parametrization of decision analytic simulation models and applied health economic evaluations in the field of prevention and management of type 2 diabetes in Germany.

Cost-effectiveness of exenatide twice daily vs insulin glargine as add-on therapy to oral antidiabetic agents in patients with type 2 diabetes in China.

AIMS: To estimate the long-term cost-effectiveness of exenatide twice daily vs insulin glargine once daily as add-on therapy to oral antidiabetic agents (OADs) for Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes (T2DM). METHODS: The Cardiff Diabetes Model was used to simulate disease progression and estimate the long-term effects of exenatide twice daily vs insulin glargine once daily. Patient profiles and treatment effects required for the model were obtained from literature reviews (English and Chinese databases) and from a meta-analysis of 8 randomized controlled trials comparing exenatide twice daily with insulin glargine once daily add-on to OADs for T2DM in China. Medical expenditure data were collected from 639 patients with T2DM (aged ≥18 years) with and without complications incurred between January 1, 2014 and December 31, 2015 from claims databases in Shandong, China. Costs (2014 Chinese Yuan [¥]) and benefits were estimated, from the payers' perspective, over 40 years at a discount rate of 3%. A series of sensitivity analyses were performed. RESULTS: Patients on exenatide twice daily + OAD had a lower predicted incidence of most cardiovascular and hypoglycaemic events and lower total costs compared with those on insulin glargine once daily + OAD. A greater number of quality-adjusted life years (QALYs; 1.94) at a cost saving of ¥117 706 gained was associated with exenatide twice daily vs insulin glargine once daily. (i.e. cost saving of ¥60 764/QALY) per patient. CONCLUSIONS: In Chinese patients with T2DM inadequately controlled by OADs, exenatide twice daily is a cost-effective add-on therapy alternative to insulin glargine once daily, and may address the problem of an excess of medical needs resulting from weight gain and hypoglycaemia in T2DM treatment.

Five-year cost-effectiveness of the Patient Empowerment Programme (PEP) for type 2 diabetes mellitus in primary care.

This study evaluated the short-term cost-effectiveness of the Patient Empowerment Programme (PEP) for diabetes mellitus (DM) in Hong Kong. Propensity score matching was used to select a matched group of PEP and non-PEP subjects. A societal perspective was adopted to estimate the cost of PEP. Outcome measures were the cumulative incidence of all-cause mortality and diabetic complication over a 5-year follow-up period and the number needed to treat (NNT) to avoid 1 event. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of cost per event avoided was calculated using the PEP cost per subject multiplied by the NNT. The PEP cost per subject from the societal perspective was US$247. There was a significantly lower cumulative incidence of all-cause mortality (2.9% vs 4.6%, P < .001), any DM complication (9.5% vs 10.8%, P = .001) and CVD events (6.8% vs 7.6%, P = .018), in the PEP group. The costs per death from any cause, DM complication or case of CVD avoided were US$14 465, US$19 617 and US$30 796, respectively. The extra amount allocated to managing PEP was small and it appears cost-effective in the short-term as an addition to RAMP.

Hospitalization costs and clinical outcomes in CABG patients treated with intensive insulin therapy.

BACKGROUND: The financial impact of intensive (blood glucose [BG] 100-140mg/dl [5.5-7.8mM] vs. conservative (141-180mg/dl (7.9-10.0mM) glucose control in the ICU in patients, with and without diabetes, undergoing coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery is not known. METHODS: This post-hoc cost analysis determined differences in hospitalization costs, resource utilization and perioperative complications in 288 CABG patients with diabetes (n=143) and without diabetes (n=145), randomized to intensive (n=143) and conservative (n=145) glucose control. RESULTS: Intensive glucose control resulted in lower BG (131.4±14mg/dl-(7.2±0.8mM) vs. 151.6±17mg/dl (8.4±0.8mM, p<0.001), a nonsignificant reduction in the median length of stay (LOS, 7.9 vs. 8.5days, p=0.17) and in a composite of perioperative complications including wound infection, bacteremia, acute renal and respiratory failure, major cardiovascular events (42% vs 52%, p=0.10) compared to conservative control. Median hospitalization costs were lower in the intensive group ($39,366 vs. $42,141, p=0.040), with a total cost savings of $3654 (95% CI: $1780-$3723), than conservative control. Resource utilization for radiology (p=0.008), laboratory (p=0.014), consultation service (p=0.013), and ICU utilization (p=0.007) were also lower in the intensive group. Compared to patients without perioperative complications, those with complications had longer hospital length of stay (10.7days vs. 6.7days, p<0.001), higher total hospitalization cost ($48,299 vs. $32,675, p<0.001), and higher resource utilization units (2745 vs. 1710, p<0.001). CONCLUSION: Intensive glycemic control [BG 100-140mg/dl (5.5-7.8mM)] in patients undergoing CABG resulted in significant reductions in hospitalization costs and resource utilization compared to patients treated with conservative [BG 141-180mg/dl (7.9-10.0mM)] glucose control.

Impact of socio-economic position on health and quality of care in adults with Type 2 diabetes in France: the Entred 2007 study.

AIM: To describe the association between socio-economic position, health status and quality of diabetes care in people with Type 2 diabetes in France, where people may receive full healthcare coverage for chronic disease. METHODS: Data from a national cross-sectional survey performed in people pharmacologically treated for diabetes were used. They combined data from medical claims, hospital discharge, questionnaires for patients (n = 3894 with Type 2 diabetes) and their physicians (n = 2485). Socio-economic position was assessed using educational level (low, intermediate, high) and ability to make ends meet (financial difficulties vs. financially comfortable). RESULTS: People with diabetes reporting financial difficulties were more likely to be smokers (adjusted odds ratio 1.4; 95% CI 1.1-1.6) and obese (adjusted odds ratio 1.3; 95% CI 1.2-1.6) and to have poorer glycaemic control (HbA1c > 64 mmol/mol (8%); adjusted odds ratio 1.4; 95% CI 1.1-1.8), than those who were financially comfortable. They were more likely to have their diabetes diagnosed because of complications (adjusted odds ratio 1.6; 95% CI 1.3-2.0). They were also more likely to have coronary and podiatric complications (adjusted odds ratios 1.3; 95% CI 1.1-1.6 and 1.7; 95% CI 1.4-2.2, respectively). They benefited more often from full coverage (adjusted odds ratio 1.3; 95% CI 1.1-1.6), visited general practitioners more often (ratio of estimated marginal means 1.2; 95% CI 1.1-1.2) but specialists less often (adjusted odds ratio 0.7; 95% CI 0.6-0.8 for a visit to private ophthalmologist). They also felt less well informed about their condition. CONCLUSIONS: Despite frequent access to full healthcare coverage, socio-economic position has an impact on the diagnosis of diabetes, health status and quality of diabetes care in France.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of adding pharmacists to primary care teams to reduce cardiovascular risk in patients with Type 2 diabetes: results from a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Adding pharmacists to primary care teams significantly improved blood pressure control and reduced predicted 10-year cardiovascular risk in patients with Type 2 diabetes. This pre-specified sub-study evaluated the economic implications of this cardiovascular risk reduction strategy. METHODS: One-year outcomes and healthcare utilization data from the trial were used to determine cost-effectiveness from the public payer perspective. Costs were expressed in 2014 Canadian dollars and effectiveness was based on annualized risk of cardiovascular events derived from the UKPDS Risk Engine. RESULTS: The 123 evaluable trial patients included in this analysis had a mean age of 62 ( ± 11) years, 38% were men, and mean diabetes duration was 6 ( ± 7) years. Pharmacists provided 3.0 ( ± 1.9) hours of additional service to each intervention patient, which cost $226 ( ± $1143) per patient. The overall one-year per-patient costs for healthcare utilization were $190 lower in the intervention group compared with usual care [95% confidence interval (CI): -$1040, $668). Intervention patients had a significant 0.3% greater reduction in the annualized risk of a cardiovascular event (95% CI: 0.08%, 0.6%) compared with usual care. In the cost-effectiveness analysis, the intervention dominated usual care in 66% of 10,000 bootstrap replications. At a societal willingness-to-pay of $4000 per 1% reduction in annual cardiovascular risk, the probability that the intervention was cost-effective compared with usual care reached 95%. A sensitivity analysis using multiple imputation to replace missing data produced similar results. CONCLUSIONS: Within a randomized trial, adding pharmacists to primary care teams was a cost-effective strategy for reducing cardiovascular risk in patients with Type 2 diabetes. In most circumstances, this intervention may also be cost saving.

Racial disparities in cardiovascular risk factor control in an underinsured population with Type 2 diabetes.

AIM: To investigate the race-specific trend in attainment of the American Diabetes Association cardiovascular risk factor control goals (HbA1c <53 mmol/mol (7.0%), blood pressure <130/80 mmHg and LDL cholesterol <2.6mmol/l) by patients with Type 2 diabetes. METHODS: The study sample included 14 946 African-American and 12 758 white patients who were newly diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes between 2001 and 2009 in the Louisiana State University Hospital system. The race-specific percentages of patients' attainment of American Diabetes Association goals were calculated using the baseline and follow-up measurements of HbA1c , blood pressure, and LDL cholesterol levels. Logistic regression was used to test the difference between African-American and white patients. RESULTS: The percentage of patients who met all three American Diabetes Association goals increased from 8.2% in 2001 to 10.2% in 2009 (increased by 24.4%) in this cohort. Compared with African-American patients, white patients had better attainment of the following American Diabetes Association goals: HbA1c (61.4 vs. 55.1%), blood pressure (25.8 vs. 20.4%), LDL cholesterol (40.1 vs. 37.7%) and all three goals (7.3 vs. 5.1%). African-American and white patients generally had a better cardiovascular disease risk factor profile during follow-up when we assessed attainment of the American Diabetes Association goals by means of HbA1c , blood pressure and LDL cholesterol. CONCLUSIONS: During 2001-2009, the present low-income cohort of people with Type 2 diabetes generally experienced improved control of cardiovascular disease risk factors. White patients had better attainment of the American Diabetes Association cardiovascular risk factor control goals than their African-American counterparts.

Cost implications of the use of basal insulin glargine in people with early dysglycemia: the ORIGIN trial.

AIMS: The cost implications of the Outcome Reduction with an Initial Glargine Intervention (ORIGIN) trial were evaluated using a prespecified analysis plan. METHODS: Purchasing power parity-adjusted country-specific costs were applied to consumed healthcare resources by participants from each country. Subgroup analyses were conducted on subgroups based on baseline metabolic status and diabetes duration. RESULTS: The total undiscounted cost per participant in the insulin glargine arm was $13,491 ($13,080 to $14,254) versus $11,189 ($10,568 to $12,147) for standard care, an increase of $2303 ($1370 to $3235; p < 0.0001); the discounted increase was $2099 ($1276 to $2923; P < 0.0001). The greater number of mainly generic oral anti-diabetic agents in the standard group partially offset the higher cost of basal insulin glargine. As the trial progressed and the standard group required more anti-diabetic medications, the annual cost difference decreased, reaching $68 (-$160 to $295) in the last year. The subgroup whose baseline diabetes duration was ≥ 6 years achieved cost-savings during the trial. CONCLUSIONS: From a global perspective basal insulin glargine use in ORIGIN incurred greater costs than standard care using older generic drugs. Nevertheless, the cost difference fell with time such that the intervention was cost-neutral by the last year.

Costs of diabetes and its complications in Poland.

OBJECTIVE: Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a major health problem with severe complications and a significant impact on quality of life. It constitutes an enormous burden of disease due to high prevalence, severe co-morbidities and high costs for society. This study is the first comprehensive study on the direct and indirect costs of DM (type 1 and type 2) and associated complications in Poland. METHODS: In order to estimate the direct medical costs of DM and its complications, including the costs of medical consultation, hospitalisation, rehabilitation, drugs and medical equipment, data from the National Health Fund were used. Indirect costs on loss of productivity due to diabetes and its complications were based on data obtained from the ZUS (Social Insurance Institution) and from GUS (Poland's Central Statistical Office). Attributable risk methodology was used to assess the burden of DM complications. RESULTS: A continuous increase of the direct costs of diabetes has been observed since the year 2005. In the analysed time period (2005-2009) the direct costs of medical services for both types of DM doubled. DM is a cause of significant sickness absence and incapacity for work and therefore is associated with a growing productivity decline in Poland. The highest direct costs and indirect costs are associated with treatment of diabetes-related complications. Direct costs of hospital complication treatment were EUR 332 million, which exceeded by more than five times the direct costs of hospital treatment of diabetes per se, which in the same year amounted to EUR 58.5 million. The indirect costs of diabetes-related complications were higher by 41% compared with indirect costs related to DM itself. Total costs of health care services for DM and its complications amounted to EUR 654 million, which constitutes a 2.8% of total health care costs in Poland. Total DM cost in Poland in 2009 amounted EURO 1.5 billion. CONCLUSIONS: DM is causing a growing economic burden on the health care system and on Polish society in terms of health care and productivity losses. Most of the total cost of diabetes are indirect costs caused by productivity losses. Both direct and indirect costs are driven by the cost of diabetes complications.

The "cost" of treating to target: cross-sectional analysis of patients with poorly controlled type 2 diabetes in Australian general practice.

BACKGROUND: To describe the current treatment gap in management of cardiovascular risk factors in patients with poorly controlled type 2 diabetes in general practice as well as the associated financial and therapeutic burden of pharmacological treatment. METHODS: Cross-sectional analysis of data from the Patient Engagement and Coaching for Health trial. This totalled 473 patients from 59 general practices with participants eligible if they had HbA1c > 7.5%. Main outcome measures included proportions of patients not within target risk factor levels and weighted average mean annual cost for cardiometabolic medications and factors associated with costs. Medication costs were derived from the Australian Pharmaceutical Benefits Schedule. RESULTS: Average age was 63 (range 27-89). Average HbA1c was 8.1% and average duration of diabetes was 10 years. 35% of patients had at least one micro or macrovascular complication and patients were taking a mean of 4 cardio-metabolic medications. The majority of participants on treatment for cardiovascular risk factors were not achieving clinical targets, with 74% and 75% of patients out of target range for blood pressure and lipids respectively. A significant proportion of those not meeting clinical targets were not on treatment at all. The weighted mean annual cost for cardiometabolic medications was AUD$1384.20 per patient (2006-07). Independent factors associated with cost included age, duration of diabetes, history of acute myocardial infarction, proteinuria, increased waist circumference and depression. CONCLUSIONS: Treatment rates for cardiovascular risk factors in patients with type 2 diabetes in our participants are higher than those identified in earlier studies. However, rates of achieving target levels remain low despite the large 'pill burden' and substantial associated fiscal costs to individuals and the community. The complexities of balancing the overall benefits of treatment intensification against potential disadvantages for patients and health care systems in primary care warrants further investigation.