Effect of Clostridium botulinum toxin type A injections into the deep digital flexor muscle on the range of motion of the metacarpus and carpus, and the force distribution underneath the hooves, of sound horses at the walk.

In the treatment of laminitis, reducing deep digital flexor muscle (DDFM) activity might diminish its pull on the distal phalanx, thereby preventing displacement and providing pain relief. Injection of Clostridium botulinum toxin type A into the DDFM of horses is potentially therapeutic. However, the effects of C. botulinum toxin type A on the gait characteristics of sound horses at the walk are not known. The aim of this study was to test if a reduced DDFM activity would lead to (1) alterations of the sagittal range of motion of the metacarpus (SROM) and range of motion of the carpal joint (CROM); (2) changes in the force distribution underneath the hoof (toe vs. heel region: balance index); and (3) changes in the force distribution between the treated and untreated limb (symmetry index). The DDFMs of the left forelimbs of seven sound Royal Dutch Sport Horses were injected with 200 IU C. botulinum toxin type A using electromyography and ultrasound guidance. Measurements using an inertial sensor system and dynamically calibrated pressure plate were performed before and after injections. The SROM and CROM of the treated limb were significantly increased after C. botulinum toxin type A injections. No significant changes were detected in the balance index or in the symmetry index, indicating that no lameness was induced. C. botulinum toxin type A injections into the DDFM of sound horses do not appear to result in substantial gait alterations at the walk.

Idiopathic haemarthrosis in eight horses.

OBJECTIVES: To review eight horses diagnosed with idiopathic haemarthrosis and to describe the intra-articular use of yttrium-90 ((90) Y) and methylprednisolone acetate (MPA) in recurrent haemarthrosis cases. DESIGN: Retrospective case series. METHOD: The medical records, diagnostic images, histopathology and outcome of all horses diagnosed with idiopathic haemarthrosis between 1998 and 2010 were reviewed. RESULTS: Four Thoroughbred racehorses with haemarthrosis of the antebrachiocarpal joint had severe acute lameness (median, grade 4) and marked joint effusion after high-speed exercise. Another four horses (2 Thoroughbred racehorses, 1 Standardbred racehorse, 1 Warmblood) had haemarthrosis of the tarsocrural joint and presented with mild, intermittent lameness (median, grade 1) and marked, persistent joint effusion. Six of the eight horses had recurrent haemarthrosis prior to treatment. Radiographic and nuclear scintigraphic examinations did not identify bone pathology. Diagnostic arthroscopy (7 cases) identified grossly hypertrophied yellow/brown discoloured synovium. Synovial histopathology of these cases revealed chronic synovial hyperplasia with severe haemosiderosis and granulomatous inflammatory reaction of varying severity. All horses underwent rest, bandaging and phenylbutazone administration. Two horses had subtotal mechanical synovectomy, four horses had intra-articular administration of (90) Y and MPA, and one horse underwent both treatments. Seven cases returned to their previous use (median time, 7 months). Haemarthrosis recurred in three horses, two of which had received the (90) Y and MPA treatment. CONCLUSION: Idiopathic haemarthrosis should be considered a differential for acute and recurrent joint related lameness and effusion. Recurrence appears not uncommon and the use of intra-articular (90) Y and MPA in conjunction with a conservative management treatment protocol warrants further evaluation.

Effects of hypertonic dextrose injections in the rabbit carpal tunnel.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigated the effects of different doses of hypertonic dextrose injection on the carpal tunnel subsynovial connective tissue (SSCT) and median nerve in a rabbit model. METHODS: Thirty-eight New Zealand white rabbits weighing 4.0-4.5 kg were used. One forepaw carpal tunnel was randomly injected with one of five different treatments: saline-single injection; saline-two injections 1 week apart; 10% dextrose-single injection; 20% dextrose-single injection; or 10% dextrose-two injections 1 week apart. Animals were sacrificed at 12 weeks after the initial injection and were evaluated by electrophysiology (EP), SSCT mechanical testing and histology. RESULTS: There were significant increases in the energy absorption of the SSCT in the 10% dextrose-double injection group compared to the saline injection groups. SSCT stiffness was also significantly increased in the 10% dextrose-double injection group compared to the other groups. There was a significant increase in the thickness of the SSCT in the 10% dextrose-double injection group compared to the saline-single injection group and a significant decrease in the nerve short-long diameter ratio in the 10% dextrose-double injection group compared to the saline-single injection group. There were no changes in EP among the groups. CONCLUSIONS: SSCT fibrosis is present for up to 12 weeks after dextrose injection; multiple injections have bigger effects, including what appears to be a secondary change in nerve flattening. This model may be useful to study the effects of external fibrosis on nerve morphology and physiology, such as occurs clinically in carpal tunnel syndrome.

Long-term bone tissue reaction to polyethylene oxide/polybutylene terephthalate copolymer (Polyactive) in metacarpophalangeal joint reconstruction.

The poly-L/D-lactide 96/4 joint scaffolds are used to engineer fibrous tissue joints in situ for the reconstruction of metacarpophalangeal joints. In this experimental study, a supplementary elastomeric stem made of Polyactive 1000PEO70PBT30 (a segmented block copolymer of polyethylene oxide and polybutylene terephtalate with 70/30 PEO/PBT ratio) was used to anchor the joint scaffold in the arthroplasty space. Eleven resected fifth metacarpophalangeal joints of minipig were reconstructed and evaluated radiologically and histologically for 3 years. Plain joint scaffold and Swanson silicone implant arthroplasties (11 of each) in metacarpophalangeal joints of minipig served as controls. Altogether fore limbs of eighteen minipigs were operated for the study. Deleterious tissue reaction with dramatic signs of osteolysis and inflammatory foreign-body reaction was observed around the Polyactive stems. The mean maximum diameter of the osteolytic stem cavity was statistically wider when compared to the mean maximum diameter of Swanson implant group during the first postoperative year. Numerous osteoclasts were found at the margins of the osteolytic areas. No direct bone contact could be seen. At 1 year osteoblastic regeneration and formation of new trabecular bone followed. Finally the foreign-body reaction settled, but the adjoining bones were at this stage highly sclerotic and composed of coarse trabeculae. In contrary to previous in vivo studies suggesting biocompatibility, osteoconductivity and capability to bond to bone, Polyactive 1000PEO70PBT30 stem in this setting caused massive osteolytic lesions and foreign-body reactions.

Clinical, biochemical, and histologic effects of intra-articular administration of autologous conditioned serum in horses with experimentally induced osteoarthritis.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the clinical, biochemical, and histologic effects of intra-articular administration of autologous conditioned serum (ACS) in the treatment of experimentally induced osteoarthritis in horses. ANIMALS: 16 horses. PROCEDURES: Osteoarthritis was induced arthroscopically in 1 middle carpal joint of all horses. In 8 placebo- and 8 ACS-treated horses, 6 mL of PBS solution or 6 mL of ACS was injected into the osteoarthritis-affected joint on days 14, 21, 28, and 35, respectively; PBS solution was administered in the other sham-operated joints. Evaluations included clinical assessment of lameness and synovial fluid analysis (performed biweekly); gross pathologic and histologic examinations of cartilage and synovial membrane samples were performed at necropsy. RESULTS: No adverse treatment-related events were detected. Horses that were treated with ACS had significant clinical improvement in lameness, unlike the placebo-treated horses. Among the osteoarthritis-affected joints, ACS treatment significantly decreased synovial membrane hyperplasia, compared with placebo-treated joints; although not significant, the ACS-treated joints also appeared to have less gross cartilage fibrillation and synovial membrane hemorrhage. The synovial fluid concentration of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (assessed by use of mouse anti-interleukin-1 receptor antagonist antibody) was increased following treatment with ACS. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results of this controlled study indicated that there was significant clinical and histologic improvement in osteoarthritis-affected joints of horses following treatment with ACS, compared with placebo treatment. On the basis of these findings, further controlled clinical trials to assess this treatment are warranted, and investigation of the mechanisms of action of ACS should be pursued concurrently.

Bone healing in the rat and dog with nonglycosylated BMP-2 demonstrating low solubility in fibrin matrices.

A novel form of recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) was explored for effective incorporation and long-term retention into fibrin ingrowth matrices. The solubility of native BMP-2 is greatly dependent on its glycosylation. To enhance retention of BMP-2 in fibrin matrices, a nonglycosylated form (nglBMP-2), which is less soluble than the native glycosylated protein, was produced recombinantly and evaluated in critical-size defects in the rat calvarium (group n=6). When 1 or 20 microg nglBMP-2 was incorporated by precipitation within the matrix, 74 +/- 4% and 98 +/- 2% healing was observed in the rat calvarium, respectively, as judged radiographically by closure of the defect at 3 weeks. More soluble forms of BMP-2, used as controls, induced less healing, demonstrating a positive correlation between low solubility, retention in vitro, and healing in vivo. Subsequently, the utility of nglBMP-2 was explored in a prospective veterinary clinical trial for inter-carpal fusion in dogs, replacing the standard-of-care, namely autologous cancellous autograft, with nglBMP-2 in fibrin. In a study of 10 sequential canine patients, fibrin with 600 microg/ml nglBMP-2 performed better than autograft in the first weeks of bone healing and comparably thereafter. Furthermore, a greater fraction of animals treated with nglBMP-2 in fibrin demonstrated bone bridging across each of the treated joints at both 12 and 17 weeks than in animals treated with autograft. These results suggest that evaluation in a human clinical setting of nonglycosylated BMP-2 in fibrin matrices might be fruitful.

The effect of intra-articular methylprednisolone acetate and exercise on equine carpal subchondral and cancellous bone microhardness.

Dorsal carpal osteochondral injury is a major cause of lameness in horses undergoing high intensity training. Intra-articular corticosteroid treatment is used commonly to manage exercise-associated articular pain, but its use remains highly controversial in the equine athlete. This project, therefore, aimed to compare the mechanical properties of intra-articular MPA and diluent-treated middle carpal subchondral and cancellous bone in horses undergoing a short-term treadmill exercise programme. It was hypothesised that subchondral and cancellous bone mechanical properties are influenced by intra-articular administration of methylprednisolone acetate (MPA). Eight 2-year-old female horses had MPA or diluent administered into contralateral middle carpal joints at 14 day intervals, for a total of 4 treatments per horse. Horses underwent a standard treadmill exercise protocol until euthanasia (Day 70). Standard sites were located on the dorsal aspect of third, radial and intermediate carpal bones. Osteochondral samples from each test site were divided into subchondral bone and cancellous bone portions. These were dried, resin-embedded and gold-coated. Microhardness measurements were obtained at each test site. No significant effect of intra-articular treatment was detected. At each site, cancellous bone trabecular struts had an 18-19% higher microhardness value than the overlying subchondral bone. These findings indicate that intra-articular administration of MPA at this dose has no effect on subchondral or cancellous bone adaptation to short-term exercise and, therefore, on the propensity of carpal bones to injury. Further investigation into the calcified cartilage layer, effect of different corticosteroid preparations and diffusion of medication are required.

Release of lubricating synovial surfactant by intra-articular steroid.

This study was undertaken to determine whether glucocorticosteroids promote the secretion of lubricating surfactant, i.e. surface-active phospholipid (SAPL), into the joint. A standard clinical dose (100 mg) of methylprednisolone acetate (MPA) in 2.5 ml of saline was injected into the load-bearing right radiocarpal joint of five horses and 2.5 ml of saline injected into each of the contralateral joints used as controls. Synovial fluid (SF) was aspirated from all 10 joints before injection and at intervals of 16 and 32 h after injection, and then analysed by standard methods. All test joints showed an elevated level of SAPL, the increases averaging 112% after 16 h and 76% after 32 h, which were highly significant relative to the control joints. A large increase at 16 h was also found in proteolipid as a possible further marker of surfactant release. Significant quantities of proteolipid were also found in human SF. Since intra-articular steroids can dramatically improve joint mobility in both humans and horses, it is proposed that part of the benefit may be derived from improved lubrication arising from the remarkable ability of SAPL to lubricate under high load. Other possible benefits of elevating surfactant levels in the joints include control of cartilage hydration, promotion of macrophage activity and the ability to scavenge oxygen free radicals.

Effects of osteochondral fragmentation and intra-articular triamcinolone acetonide treatment on subchondral bone in the equine carpus.

To determine the effects of osteochondral fragmentation and intra-articular corticosteroid treatment on dynamics of bone remodelling and fragility, 12 horses each had a unilateral, 8 mm osteochondral fragment created in the distal aspect of one radiocarpal bone. Six of the horses were treated in the fragmented joint, and the other 6 were treated in the nonfragmented joint with 12 mg of triamcinolone acetonide (TA) 14 and 28 days after surgery. All horses were exercised on a high-speed treadmill starting 15 days, and ending 72 days after surgery. Horses treated with TA in the fragmented joints were significantly less lame than those treated in the nonfragmented joints. Third carpal bones from joints with fragments showed significantly more vascularity, single labelled surface, total labelled surface and mineralising surface in subchondral and subjacent trabecular bone. Trends were also seen towards higher vascular canal volume and osteochondral junction remodelling sites in third carpal bones from fragmented joints. No significant differences were seen in microdamage density or size between fragmented and nonfragmented joints. No significant influence of TA treatment was seen on any parameter measured. The results from this study show that osteochondral fragmentation induces significant changes in remodelling of opposing bones, and that the administration of corticosteroids into joints with fragmentation does not significantly alter bone remodelling or fragility.

Effects of intravenous administration of sodium hyaluronate on carpal joints in exercising horses after arthroscopic surgery and osteochondral fragmentation.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of arthroscopic surgery, osteochondral fragmentation, and treatment with IV administered hyaluronate on histologic, histochemical, and biochemical measurements within the carpal joints of horses. ANIMALS: 12 clinically normal horses, 2 to 7 years of age. PROCEDURE: Horses had an osteochondral fragment created at the distal aspect of the radiocarpal bone of 1 randomly chosen middle carpal joint to simulate osteochondral fragmentation. Horses were treated with 40 mg of hyaluronate or saline solution (placebo) intravenously once a week for 3 consecutive weeks (days 13, 20, and 27 after surgery). Treadmill exercise proceeded 5 days per week beginning 15 days, and ending 72 days, after surgery. Clinical evaluations were performed at the beginning and end of the study. Synovial fluid samples were obtained aseptically from both middle carpal joints on days 0, 13, 20, 27, 34, and 72 after surgery, and total protein, inflammatory cell, hyaluronate, glycosaminoglycan, and prostaglandin E2 concentrations were measured in each sample. All horses were euthanatized on day 72. Synovial membrane and articular cartilage were obtained for histologic evaluation. Articular cartilage samples were also obtained aseptically for determining glycosaminoglycan content and chondrocyte synthetic rate for glycosaminoglycans. RESULTS: Horses treated with hyaluronate intravenously had lower lameness scores (were less lame), significantly better synovial membrane histologic scores, and significantly lower concentrations of total protein and prostaglandin E2 within synovial fluid 72 days after surgery, compared with placebo-treated horses. Treatment with intravenously administered hyaluronate had no significant effects on glycosaminoglycan content, synthetic rate or morphologic scoring in articular cartilage, or other synovial fluid measurements. CONCLUSION: Intravenously administered hyaluronate appears to alleviate signs of lameness by interacting with synoviocytes, and by decreasing production and release of inflammatory mediators.

Effect of tumor necrosis factor antibody on synovial fluid cytokine activities in equine antebrachiocarpal joints injected with endotoxin.

Six horses received intra-articular injections of a mixture of 1 micrograms of endotoxin/5 mg of equine tumor necrosis factor (eqTNF) monoclonal antibody in 1 antebrachiocarpal joint and an equal volume (2 ml) of 1 micrograms of endotoxin/5 mg of control antibody in the opposite joint. Synovial fluid sample collection (1 ml) was accomplished by use of an indwelling, intra-articular catheter at postinjection hours (PIH) 0, 1, 1.5, 2, 5, and 8, and by arthrocentesis at PIH 24. Joint fluid samples were analyzed for nucleated cell count, protein concentration, and TNF, interleukin 6 (IL-6), IL-1, and IL-1-inhibitory activities. To monitor local inflammation, each carpus was graded semiquantitatively for swelling prior to each sample collection. Tumor necrosis factor, IL-1, or IL-1-inhibitory activity was not detected in any synovial fluid sample collected before endotoxin/antibody was administered. However, low IL-6 activity (< 100 U/ml) was found in 2 of 12 preinjection samples. In joints injected with endotoxin/control antibody mixture, maximal mean +/- SEM activities for TNF (1,019 +/- 310 U/ml), IL-1 (173 +/- 102 U/ml), and IL-6 (10.8 +/- 3.1 x 10(4) U/ml) were observed at PIH 2, 5, and 8, respectively. Tumor necrosis factor and IL-1 activities returned to baseline values by PIH 8 and 24, respectively; however, IL-6 activity remained high. Interleukin 1 inhibitory activity (27.4 +/- 2.25 IU/ml) was detected in all PIH-24 samples from control joints, but was not detected at any other time in control joints (limit of detection, 20 IU/ml). Tumor necrosis factor activity was not detected in any synovial fluid sample from joints treated with endotoxin/eqTNF antibody. In contrast, endotoxin IL-1 inhibitory activity (PIH 24) was higher in eqTNF antibody-treated joints (41.0 +/- 7.7 IU/ml) than in control joints, but the difference was not significant. Mean WBC count and protein concentration in control and treated joints were maximal at PIH 8. The curves for mean values of WBC count and total protein concentration were not significantly different in treated versus control joints. Swelling in each treated joint was either less than or the same as that in the opposite control joint at even, time in the initial 8 PIH. There was significant (P = 0.043) difference between treated and control joints at PIH 5 and 8. These results describe a profile of synovial fluid TNF, IL-1, IL-6 bioactivities, and IL-1-inhibitory activity during the initial 24 hours of synovitis induced by intra-articular administration of endotoxin in horses. Our eqTNF monoclonal antibody was effective in neutralizing TNF activity in synovial fluid when administered intra-articularly with endotoxin in horses. The induction of IL-1, IL-1 inhibitory activity IL-6, WBC, and total protein concentration responses are largely independent of TNF activity in synovial fluid of horses receiving endotoxin intra-articularly.

Influence of intra-articular sodium hyaluronate and polysulphated glycosaminoglycans on the biochemical composition of equine articular surface repair tissue.

The influence of repeated intra-articular injections of sodium hyaluronate and polysulphated glycosaminoglycan on the repair of full-thickness osteochondral defects was examined in the midcarpal joints of ponies. The study showed no significant difference between treated and control groups with regard to total collagen content, uronic acid content or the relative proportions of Type I and Type II collagen in the repair tissue, indicating that the drugs did not affect the biochemical composition of the repair tissue 11 weeks after defect induction.

Evaluation of the effects of intra-articular injection of dimethylsulfoxide on normal equine articular tissues.

To evaluate the effects of intra-articular injection of dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) on normal equine articular structures, 7 adult horses with clinically normal carpi were allotted to 2 treatment groups (group A, n = 4; group B, n = 3). In each horse after collection of synovial fluid samples, the right antebrachial carpal and middle carpal joints were aseptically injected with 2 ml of a 40% solution of 90% medical grade DMSO in lactated Ringer solution, and the corresponding joints of the left forelimb (controls) were injected with 2 ml of lactated Ringer solution. In group-A horses, 2 ml of synovial fluid was obtained prior to injections of 40% DMSO at 24 hours and 72 hours, for a total of 3 injections. At necropsy, synovial fluid, synovial membrane, and articular cartilage specimens were obtained. Group-B horses were injected with 40% DMSO in the same sequence; however, the series was repeated following a 1-week interval. Clinical evaluation of these horses revealed no evidence of carpal inflammation associated with any injection in any group. Synovial fluid analysis of DMSO-injected and control joints revealed insignificant differences in leukocyte counts and total protein content. There was no evidence of cartilage degradation on gross, histologic, or histochemical evaluation of any of the joints. Intercellular matrix staining of the articular cartilage failed to reveal any observable difference in glycosaminoglycan content between injection with DMSO or lactated Ringer solution.

Changes in equine carpal joint synovial fluid in response to the injection of two local anesthetic agents.

The effects of repeated arthrocentesis and injection of local anesthetic agents, lidocaine HCl or mepivacaine HCl on the equine middle carpal joint were investigated. Synovial fluid samples were evaluated before, and 12, 24 and 48 hours following, treatment. The greatest changes from pretreatment values occurred in synovial fluid cellularity. Repeated arthrocentesis caused a moderate increase in cell counts, while injection of local anesthetics caused a greater increase. Alterations in mucin clot quality, hyaluronic acid content, fluid viscosity, total protein and immunoglobulin G were generally of no significance. The most sensitive sampling time to detect changes caused by a given treatment was 24 hours following treatment while the 12 hour sampling period appeared to be the best at detecting differences between treatments. Repeated arthrocentesis has a definite effect on synovial fluid composition but the effects appear to decrease with repeated centesis. Lidocaine HCl and mepivacaine HCl are irritating to the synovial environment. Clear differences between responses to the drugs could not be identified.

Effect of gentamicin sulfate and sodium bicarbonate on the synovium of clinically normal equine antebrachiocarpal joints.

The effect of gentamicin sulfate, unbuffered and buffered with sodium bicarbonate, on synovial fluid and membrane of clinically normal equine joints was evaluated. Thirty-six adult horses with clinically normal antebrachiocarpal joints were allotted to 6 treatment groups of 6 horses each. One antebrachiocarpal joint in each horse was chosen for treatment. Group-1 horses were given gentamicin (3 ml; 50 mg/ml); group-2 horses were given sodium bicarbonate (3 ml; 1 mEq/ml); group-3 horses were given gentamicin (3 ml; 50 mg/ml) and sodium bicarbonate (3 ml; 1 mEq/ml); group-4 horses were not treated; and horses of groups 5 and 6 were given polyionic physiologic solution (3 and 6 ml, respectively). Synovial fluid specimens were obtained from 5 horses of each group for cytologic analysis at postinjection hours (PIH) 0, 24, 72, and 192 and for pH determination at PIH 0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 4, 8, 24, 72, and 192. The sixth horse of each group was euthanatized at PIH 24, and the synovial membrane of the treated and contralateral (nontreated) antebrachiocarpal joints was examined macroscopically and microscopically. After intra-articular gentamicin administration, the mean synovial fluid pH was lowest (5.98) at PIH 0.25, but by PIH 8, it was not significantly different from the control value (group-5 horses). When sodium bicarbonate was combined with gentamicin before intra-articular administration, the mean synovial fluid pH was lowest (7.07) at PIH 0.25, but by PIH 1, it was not significantly different from the control value (group-6 horses).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Effect of induced synovial inflammation on pharmacokinetics and synovial concentration of sodium ampicillin and kanamycin sulfate after systemic administration in ponies.

Single doses of sodium ampicillin (10 mg/kg) and kanamycin sulfate (5 mg/kg) were administered intramuscularly (i.m.) separately, and then together, to five pony mares. The plasma antibiotic concentration-time curves were constructed. The pharmacokinetic parameters of the antibiotics given separately were not altered by concurrent administration. Four of the five pony mares were then given the i.m. kanamycin/ampicillin combination 4 h after acute synovitis and fever had been induced by injection of lipopolysaccharide into the left intercarpal joint. The plasma concentration-time curves and the synovial concentration-time curves of inflamed and normal joints were constructed. The Cmax of ampicillin in the lipopolysaccharide experiment was significantly higher than in the other experiments. The antibiotics entered the synovial fluid of the inflamed joints more quickly and attained higher concentrations than in the uninflamed joints. The ampicillin concentration exceeded 5 micrograms/ml in inflamed synovial fluid for some 2.5 h after injection, and kanamycin sulfate concentration exceeded 2 micrograms/ml for 7 h.

Intra-articular corticosteroid therapy in the horse.

Physiologic features of the equine diarthrodial joint and the effects of intra-articular corticosteroid therapy were investigated. It was concluded that intra-articular injection of corticosteroids may be beneficial when lesions are confined to soft tissues of the joint, excluding injuries involving joint laxity. Rest following therapy is important.