CPT1a gene expression reverses the inflammatory and anti-phagocytic effect of 7-ketocholesterol in RAW264.7 macrophages.

BACKGROUND: Macrophage are specialized cells that contributes to the removal of detrimental contents via phagocytosis. Lipid accumulation in macrophages, whether from phagocytosis of dying cells or from circulating oxidized low-density lipoproteins, alters macrophage biology and functionality. It is known that carnitine palmitoyl transferase 1-a (CPT1a) gene encodes an enzyme involved in fatty acid oxidation and, therefore, lipid content. However, the potential of CPT1a to activate macrophage phagocytic function have not been elucidated. METHODS: Using a murine macrophage cell line, RAW264.7, we determine if intracellular accumulation of 7-ketocholesterol (7-KC) modulates macrophage phagocytic function through CPT1a gene expression. In addition, the effects of CPT1a genetic modification on macrophage phenotype and phagocytosis has been studied. RESULTS: Our results revealed that CPT1a gene expression decreased by the accumulation of 7-KC at the higher dose of 7-KC. This was concomitant with an impair ability to phagocytize bioparticles and an inflammatory phenotype. GW3965 treatment, which have shown to facilitate the efflux of cholesterol, eliminated the intracellular lipid droplets of 7-KC-laden macrophages, increased the gene expression of CPT1a, diminished the gene expression of the inflammatory marker iNOS and restored macrophage phagocytosis. Furthermore, CPT1a Knockdown per se was detrimental for macrophage phagocytosis whereas transcriptional activation of CPT1a heightened the uptake of bioparticles. CONCLUSIONS: Altogether, our findings indicate that downregulation of CPT1a by lipid content modulates macrophage phagocytosis and inflammatory phenotype.

Helicobacter pylori antigens, acetylsalicylic acid, LDL and 7-ketocholesterol - their potential role in destabilizing the gastric epithelial cell barrier. An in vitro model of Kato III cells.

Colonization of gastric tissue in humans by H. pylori Gram-negative bacteria initiates gastric and duodenal ulcers and even gastric cancers. Infections promote inflammation and damage to gastric epithelium which might be followed by the impairment of its barrier function. The role of H. pylori components in these processes has not been specified. H. pylori cytotoxicity may potentially increase in the milieu of anti-inflammatory drugs including acetylsalicylic acid (ASA). The lipid transport-associated molecule such as low density lipoprotein (LDL), which is a classic risk factor of coronary heart disease (CHD) and 7-ketocholesterol (7-kCh) a product of cholesterol oxidation, which may occur during the oxidative stress in LDL could also be considered as pro-inflammatory. The aim of this study was to evaluate the cytotoxicity of H. pylori antigens, ASA, LDL and 7-kCh towards Kato III gastric epithelial cells, on the basis of the cell ability to reduce tetrazolium salt (MTT) and morphology of cell nuclei assessed by 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining. Kato III cells were stimulated for 24 h, at 37°C and 5% CO2, with H. pylori antigens: cytotoxin associated gene A (CagA) protein, the urease A subunit (UreA), lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and ASA, LDL or 7-kCh. H. pylori LPS, ASA, LDL and 7-kCh, but not H. pylori glycine acid extract (GE), demonstrated cytotoxicity against Kato III cells, which was related to a diminished percentage of MTT reducing cells and to an increased cell population with the signs of DNA damage. The results suggest that damage to gastric epithelial cells can be induced independently by H. pylori antigens, ASA and endogenous lipid transport-associated molecules. During H. pylori infection in vivo, especially in CHD patients, synergistic or antagonistic interactions between these factors might possibly influence the disease course. Further study is necessary to explain these potential effects.

Localization of amyloid beta (Aß1-42) protofibrils in membrane lateral compartments: effect of cholesterol and 7-Ketocholesterol.

Cholesterol plays an important role in the interaction of Alzheimer's amyloid beta (Aß) with cell membranes, an important event in Aß-induced cytotoxicity. However, it is not fully understood how cholesterol influences the association of Aß with membrane lateral compartments. We have shown that by modulating membrane fluidity, cholesterol decreased peptide localization in solid-ordered domains and increased that in liquid-ordered domains. It changed the amount of Aß associating with liquid-disordered (Ld) phase with different tendencies depending on the composition of heterogeneous membrane systems. 7-Ketocholesterol, an oxidized derivative of cholesterol, majorly enhanced the fluidity of and Aß interaction with Ld phase. These findings are useful for clarifying the impact of cholesterol and its oxidation in Aß-induced toxicity.

Cell death induced by 7-oxysterols via lysosomal and mitochondrial pathways is p53-dependent.

Oxysterol accumulation and p53 expression mainly in macrophages have been associated with cell death and necrotic core formation in human atheroma progression. Oxidative stress and lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP) in macrophages are important causes of macrophage apoptosis. However, it is not understood how p53 and oxysterols interact in the process. We show here that 7-oxysterols induce endogenous full-length p53 and phospho-p53 (p53-Ser15) in both nucleus and cytoplasm of THP1 and J774 cells, which is followed by cellular oxidative stress and apoptotic cell death. The role of p53 in 7-oxysterol-mediated cell death is further investigated in temperature sensitive p53-transfected (M1-t-p53) and in p53-deficient (M1) cells. These results reveal that 7-oxysterols induce induction and nuclear translocation of p53 in M1-t-p53 cells, which in turn enhances LMP, mitochondrial translocation of Bax, mitochondrial membrane permeabilization, cytosolic release of cytochrome c, and cell death. Most importantly, the above effects of 7-oxysterols were not observed in p53-deficient M1 cells. The findings reveal that 7-oxysterol-induced cell death occurs via p53-dependent pathways. Subsequent p53 nuclear translocation and induction of wild-type and phosphorylated p53 are early steps in oxysterol-induced lysosomal-mitochondrial pathways involved in cell death.

Lipids deposited in human atheromatous lesions induce apoptosis of human vascular smooth muscle cells.

To clarify whether lipids deposited in human atheromatous lesions induce apoptosis of vascular smooth muscle cells (SMC) and to identify the main component in deposited lipids responsible for inducing apoptosis, we examined the effect of lipids extracted from human atheromatous lesions on apoptosis of cultured SMC and analyzed the content of cholesterol in the lipids. When lipids extracted from atheromatous lesions were added to SMC, agarose electrophoresis of DNA showed a ladder pattern, DNA fragmentation assay detected an increase of fragmented DNA, and flow cytometric analysis demonstrated an increase of apoptotic cells. When the extracted lipids were fractionated by Sep-Pak ODS column, addition of the oxysterol-rich fraction to SMC resulted in a DNA ladder pattern and positive staining of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL). The oxysterol-rich fraction also increased fragmented DNA and apoptotic cells to a greater extent than the other two fractions. HPLC analysis showed that the quantity of 7-ketocholesterol in extracted lipids was large enough to induce SMC apoptosis. These results suggest that lipids deposited in human atheromatous lesions may induce apoptosis of SMC and that oxysterols may be important factor contributing to induce apoptosis among deposited lipids.

Lysophosphatidylcholine and 7-oxocholesterol modulate Ca2+ signals and inhibit the phosphorylation of endothelial NO synthase and cytosolic phospholipase A2.

The oxidation of plasma LDLs (low-density lipoproteins) is a key event in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. LPC (lysophosphatidylcholine) and oxysterols are major lipid constitutents of oxidized LDLs. In particular, 7-oxocholesterol has been found in plasma from cardiac patients and atherosclerotic plaque. In the present study, we investigated the ability of 7-oxocholesterol and LPC to regulate the activation of eNOS (endothelial nitric oxide synthase) and cPLA2 (cytosolic phospholipase A2) that synthesize two essential factors for vascular wall integrity, NO (nitric oxide) and arachidonic acid. In endothelial cells from human umbilical vein cords, both 7-oxocholesterol (150 microM) and LPC (20 microM) decreased histamine-induced NO release, but not the release activated by thapsigargin. The two lipids decreased NO release through a PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase)-dependent pathway, and decreased eNOS phosphorylation. Their mechanisms of action were, however, different. The NO release reduction was dependent on superoxide anions in LPC-treated cells and not in 7-oxocholesterol-treated ones. The Ca2+ signals induced by histamine were abolished by LPC, but not by 7-oxocholesterol. The oxysterol also inhibited (i) the histamine- and thapsigargin-induced arachidonic acid release, and (ii) the phosphorylation of both cPLA2 and ERK1/2 (extracellular-signal-regulated kinases 1/2). The results show that 7-oxocholesterol inhibits eNOS and cPLA2 activation by altering a Ca2+-independent upstream step of PI3K and ERK1/2 cascades, whereas LPC desensitizes eNOS by interfering with receptor-activated signalling pathways. This suggests that 7-oxocholesterol and LPC generate signals which cross-talk with heterologous receptors, effects which could appear at early stage of atherosclerosis.

7-ketocholesterol is an endogenous modulator for the arylhydrocarbon receptor.

We have identified 7-ketocholesterol (7-KC) as an endogenous modulator that inhibits transactivation by the arylhydrocarbon receptor (AhR) through competitive binding against xenobiotic ligands. 7-KC binds AhR and displaces labeled dioxin (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo(p)dioxin (TCDD)). IC(50) is 5 x 10(-7) m in vivo and 7 x 10(-6) m in vitro. These figures are consistent with its concentration in human blood plasma and tissues. Association with 7-KC prevents AhR binding to DNA. 7-KC blocks the TCDD-mediated transactivation of stably expressed reporter gene constructs in T47-D cells as well as the expression of the endogenous CYP 1A1 gene in HepG2 cells and in primary porcine aortic endothelial cells. Injection of 7-KC to rats blocks the induction of CYP 1A1 messenger RNA and protein in endothelial cells from myocardial blood vessels. The differential sensitivity of mammalian species to toxic effects of AhR ligands, especially dioxin (TCDD), correlates with the expression of 7-hydroxycholesterol dehydrogenase, which synthesizes 7-KC from 7-hydroxycholesterol. The documented involvement of AhR ligands in cardiovascular diseases through lipid peroxidation and endothelium dysfunction can now be examined in the context of displacement of this protective modulator.

7-Ketocholesterol.

7-Ketocholesterol is a major oxidation product of cholesterol found in human atherosclerotic plaque and is more atherogenic than cholesterol in some animal studies. 7-Ketocholesterol can inhibit cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase, the rate-limiting step in bile acid biosynthesis, as well as strongly inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase, the rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis. It has even been suggested that 7-ketocholesterol is formed enzymically as an endogenous regulator of cholesterol biosynthesis. However, when tested as a pharmacological cholesterol-lowering agent, inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase was rapidly overcome and the 7-ketocholesterol metabolised. In vitro, 7-ketocholesterol has wide-ranging and potent effects, most of which have the potential to contribute to atherosclerosis. For example, 7-ketocholesterol can be cytotoxic and can induce apoptosis in vascular cells. These effects, either individually or more likely, in combination, all implicate 7-ketocholesterol in the initiation and development of atherosclerosis, but further work is needed to establish whether or not its role is a direct causal one.

Oxidized LDL induces apoptosis in cultured smooth muscle cells: a possible role for 7-ketocholesterol.

In the multifunctional pathogens of atherosclerosis, oxidatively modified low density lipoprotein (LDL) plays a central role in atherogenesis. We searched to find out whether oxidized LDL (ox-LDL) could induce apoptosis in smooth muscle cells (SMCs). The induction of apoptosis was demonstrated by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling and DNA fragmentation. Ox-LDL induced apoptosis in a concentration dependent manner in the cells. The structural and biological changes in ox-LDL may be attributed to lysophosphatidylcholine (lyso-PC) accumulation and lipid peroxidation. To determine whether lyso-PC or lipid peroxide is responsible for the biological effect of ox-LDL, we incubated SMCs with lyso-PC or 7-ketocholesterol. Lyso-PC did not induce apoptosis, but 7-ketocholesterol did induce apoptosis. We conclude that ox-LDL induces apoptosis in SMCs and that this apoptosis contributes to lipid peroxidation. This mechanism may be important in determining the course of atherogenesis.

Membrane properties of oxysterols. Interfacial orientation, influence on membrane permeability and redistribution between membranes.

The membrane properties of cholesterol auto-oxidation products, 7-ketocholesterol, 7 beta-hydroxycholesterol, 7 alpha-hydroxycholesterol and 25-hydroxycholesterol were examined. Monolayer studies show that these oxysterols are perpendicularly orientated at the interphase. Only 7 beta-hydroxycholesterol and 7 alpha-hydroxycholesterol are tilted at low surface pressures. In mixed monolayers with dioleoylphosphatidylcholine, 7-ketocholesterol, 7 beta-hydroxycholesterol and 7 alpha-hydroxycholesterol show a condensing effect in this order, although to a lesser extent that that observed for cholesterol. In liposomes these oxysterols also reduce glucose permeability and in the same order as their condensing effect. On the other hand 25-hydroxycholesterol shows no condensing effect in monomolecular layers whereas glucose permeability in liposomes is enormously increased. The permeability increase is already maximal at 2.5 mol% 25-hydroxycholesterol. Differential scanning calorimetry experiments reveal that all four oxysterols tested reduce the heat content of the gel----liquid-crystalline phase transition. It is concluded that 7-ketocholesterol, 7 beta-hydroxycholesterol and 7 alpha-hydroxycholesterol have a cholesterol like effect, although less efficient than cholesterol, whereas 25-hydroxycholesterol showing no condensing effect acts as a spacer molecule. Packing defects in the hydrophobic core of the bilayer due to the presence of the C-25 hydroxyl group are believed to cause the permeability increase. The transfer of radiolabelled (oxy)sterols from the monolayer to lipoproteins or vesicles in the subphase was studied. The transfer rate increases in the following order 7-ketocholesterol, 7 beta-hydroxycholesterol, 7 alpha-hydroxycholesterol, 25-hydroxycholesterol. The difference in rate between 7-ketocholesterol and 25-hydroxycholesterol is 20-fold. A higher rate of transfer is observed in the presence of high density lipoproteins and small unilamellar vesicles. A transfer rate for cholesterol is hardly measurable under these conditions. The transfer measured is consistent with the involvement of a water-soluble intermediate.