Cytoskeleton remodeling: a central player in plant-fungus interactions.

The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is a complex scaffold consisting of actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. Although fungi and plants lack intermediate filaments, their dynamic structural network of actin filaments and microtubules regulates cell shape, division, polarity, and vesicular trafficking. However, the specialized functions of the cytoskeleton during plant-fungus interactions remain elusive. Recent reports demonstrate that the plant cytoskeleton responds to signal cues and pathogen invasion through remodeling, thereby coordinating immune receptor trafficking, membrane microdomain formation, aggregation of organelles, and transport of defense compounds. Emerging evidence also suggests that cytoskeleton remodeling further regulates host immunity by triggering salicylic acid signaling, reactive oxygen species generation, and pathogenesis-related gene expression. During host invasion, fungi undergo systematic cytoskeleton remodeling, which is crucial for successful host penetration and colonization. Furthermore, phytohormones act as an essential regulator of plant cytoskeleton dynamics and are frequently targeted by fungal effectors to disrupt the host's growth-defense balance. This review discusses recent advances in the understanding of cytoskeleton dynamics during plant-fungus interactions and provides novel insights into the relationship between phytohormones and cytoskeleton remodeling upon pathogen attack. We also highlight the importance of fungal cytoskeleton rearrangements during host colonization and suggest directions for future investigations in this field.

Role of biophysics and mechanobiology in podocyte physiology.

Podocytes form the backbone of the glomerular filtration barrier and are exposed to various mechanical forces throughout the lifetime of an individual. The highly dynamic biomechanical environment of the glomerular capillaries greatly influences the cell biology of podocytes and their pathophysiology. Throughout the past two decades, a holistic picture of podocyte cell biology has emerged, highlighting mechanobiological signalling pathways, cytoskeletal dynamics and cellular adhesion as key determinants of biomechanical resilience in podocytes. This biomechanical resilience is essential for the physiological function of podocytes, including the formation and maintenance of the glomerular filtration barrier. Podocytes integrate diverse biomechanical stimuli from their environment and adapt their biophysical properties accordingly. However, perturbations in biomechanical cues or the underlying podocyte mechanobiology can lead to glomerular dysfunction with severe clinical consequences, including proteinuria and glomerulosclerosis. As our mechanistic understanding of podocyte mechanobiology and its role in the pathogenesis of glomerular disease increases, new targets for podocyte-specific therapeutics will emerge. Treating glomerular diseases by targeting podocyte mechanobiology might improve therapeutic precision and efficacy, with potential to reduce the burden of chronic kidney disease on individuals and health-care systems alike.

Intracellular tension sensor reveals mechanical anisotropy of the actin cytoskeleton.

The filamentous actin (F-actin) cytoskeleton is a composite material consisting of cortical actin and bundled F-actin stress fibers, which together mediate the mechanical behaviors of the cell, from cell division to cell migration. However, as mechanical forces are typically measured upon transmission to the extracellular matrix, the internal distribution of forces within the cytoskeleton is unknown. Likewise, how distinct F-actin architectures contribute to the generation and transmission of mechanical forces is unclear. Therefore, we have developed a molecular tension sensor that embeds into the F-actin cytoskeleton. Using this sensor, we measure tension within stress fibers and cortical actin, as the cell is subject to uniaxial stretch. We find that the mechanical response, as measured by FRET, depends on the direction of applied stretch relative to the cell's axis of alignment. When the cell is aligned parallel to the direction of the stretch, stress fibers and cortical actin both accumulate tension. By contrast, when aligned perpendicular to the direction of stretch, stress fibers relax tension while the cortex accumulates tension, indicating mechanical anisotropy within the cytoskeleton. We further show that myosin inhibition regulates this anisotropy. Thus, the mechanical anisotropy of the cell and the coordination between distinct F-actin architectures vary and depend upon applied load.

Sculpting the dendritic landscape: Actin, microtubules, and the art of arborization.

Dendrites are intricately designed neuronal compartments that play a vital role in the gathering and processing of sensory or synaptic inputs. Their diverse and elaborate structures are distinct features of neuronal organization and function. Central to the generation of these dendritic arbors is the neuronal cytoskeleton. In this review, we delve into the current progress toward our understanding of how dendrite arbors are generated and maintained, focusing on the role of the actin and microtubule cytoskeleton.

The cell softening as a universal indicator of cell damage during cytotoxic effects.

Cytotoxicity assays are essential tests in studies on the safety and biocompatibility of various substances and on the efficiency of anticancer drugs. The most frequently used assays commonly require application of externally added labels and read only collective response of cells. Recent studies show that the internal biophysical parameters of cells can be associated with the cellular damage. Therefore, using atomic force microscopy, we assessed the changes in the viscoelastic parameters of cells treated with eight different common cytotoxic agents to gain a more systematic view of the occurring mechanical changes. With the robust statistical analysis to account for both the cell-level variability and the experimental reproducibility, we have found that cell softening is a common response after each treatment. More precisely, the combined changes in the viscoelastic parameters of power-law rheology model led to a significant decrease of the apparent elastic modulus. The comparison with the morphological parameters (cytoskeleton and cell shape) demonstrated a higher sensitivity of the mechanical parameters versus the morphological ones. The obtained results support the idea of cell mechanics-based cytotoxicity tests and suggest a common way of a cell responding to damaging actions by softening.

Comparison of Rheological Properties of Healthy versus Dupuytren Fibroblasts When Treated with a Cell Contraction Inhibitor by Atomic Force Microscope.

Mechanical properties of healthy and Dupuytren fibroblasts were investigated by atomic force microscopy (AFM). In addition to standard force curves, rheological properties were assessed using an oscillatory testing methodology, in which the frequency was swept from 1 Hz to 1 kHz, and data were analyzed using the structural damping model. Dupuytren fibroblasts showed larger apparent Young's modulus values than healthy ones, which is in agreement with previous results. Moreover, cell mechanics were compared before and after ML-7 treatment, which is a myosin light chain kinase inhibitor (MLCK) that reduces myosin activity and hence cell contraction. We employed two different concentrations of ML-7 inhibitor and could observe distinct cell reactions. At 1 µM, healthy and scar fibroblasts did not show measurable changes in stiffness, but Dupuytren fibroblasts displayed a softening and recovery after some time. When increasing ML-7 concentration (3 µM), the majority of cells reacted, Dupuytren fibroblasts were the most susceptible, not being able to recover from the drug and dying. These results suggested that ML-7 is a potent inhibitor for MLCK and that myosin II is essential for cytoskeleton stabilization and cell survival.

Competing instabilities reveal how to rationally design and control active crosslinked gels.

How active stresses generated by molecular motors set the large-scale mechanics of the cell cytoskeleton remains poorly understood. Here, we combine experiments and theory to demonstrate how the emergent properties of a biomimetic active crosslinked gel depend on the properties of its microscopic constituents. We show that an extensile nematic elastomer exhibits two distinct activity-driven instabilities, spontaneously bending in-plane or buckling out-of-plane depending on its composition. Molecular motors play a dual antagonistic role, fluidizing or stiffening the gel depending on the ATP concentration. We demonstrate how active and elastic stresses are set by each component, providing estimates for the active gel theory parameters. Finally, activity and elasticity were manipulated in situ with light-activable motor proteins, controlling the direction of the instability optically. These results highlight how cytoskeletal stresses regulate the self-organization of living matter and set the foundations for the rational design and optogenetic control of active materials.

Links of Cytoskeletal Integrity with Disease and Aging.

Aging is a complex feature and involves loss of multiple functions and nonreversible phenotypes. However, several studies suggest it is possible to protect against aging and promote rejuvenation. Aging is associated with many factors, such as telomere shortening, DNA damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, and loss of homeostasis. The integrity of the cytoskeleton is associated with several cellular functions, such as migration, proliferation, degeneration, and mitochondrial bioenergy production, and chronic disorders, including neuronal degeneration and premature aging. Cytoskeletal integrity is closely related with several functional activities of cells, such as aging, proliferation, degeneration, and mitochondrial bioenergy production. Therefore, regulation of cytoskeletal integrity may be useful to elicit antiaging effects and to treat degenerative diseases, such as dementia. The actin cytoskeleton is dynamic because its assembly and disassembly change depending on the cellular status. Aged cells exhibit loss of cytoskeletal stability and decline in functional activities linked to longevity. Several studies reported that improvement of cytoskeletal stability can recover functional activities. In particular, microtubule stabilizers can be used to treat dementia. Furthermore, studies of the quality of aged oocytes and embryos revealed a relationship between cytoskeletal integrity and mitochondrial activity. This review summarizes the links of cytoskeletal properties with aging and degenerative diseases and how cytoskeletal integrity can be modulated to elicit antiaging and therapeutic effects.

Analysis of the Drosophila Ajuba LIM protein defines functions for distinct LIM domains.

The Ajuba LIM protein Jub mediates regulation of Hippo signaling by cytoskeletal tension through interaction with the kinase Warts and participates in feedback regulation of junctional tension through regulation of the cytohesin Steppke. To investigate how Jub interacts with and regulates its distinct partners, we investigated the ability of Jub proteins missing different combinations of its three LIM domains to rescue jub phenotypes and to interact with α-catenin, Warts and Steppke. Multiple regions of Jub contribute to its ability to bind α-catenin and to localize to adherens junctions in Drosophila wing imaginal discs. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments in cultured cells identified a specific requirement for LIM2 for binding to Warts. However, in vivo, both LIM1 and LIM2, but not LIM3, were required for regulation of wing growth, Yorkie activity, and Warts localization. Conversely, LIM2 and LIM3, but not LIM1, were required for regulation of cell shape and Steppke localization in vivo, and for maximal Steppke binding in co-immunoprecipitation experiments. These observations identify distinct functions for the different LIM domains of Jub.

Cell Architecture-Dependent Constraints: Critical Safeguards to Carcinogenesis.

Animal cells display great diversity in their shape. These morphological characteristics result from crosstalk between the plasma membrane and the force-generating capacities of the cytoskeleton macromolecules. Changes in cell shape are not merely byproducts of cell fate determinants, they also actively drive cell fate decisions, including proliferation and differentiation. Global and local changes in cell shape alter the transcriptional program by a multitude of mechanisms, including the regulation of physical links between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope and the mechanical modulation of cation channels and signalling molecules. It is therefore not surprising that anomalies in cell shape contribute to several diseases, including cancer. In this review, we discuss the possibility that the constraints imposed by cell shape determine the behaviour of normal and pro-tumour cells by organizing the whole interconnected regulatory network. In turn, cell behaviour might stabilize cells into discrete shapes. However, to progress towards a fully transformed phenotype and to acquire plasticity properties, pro-tumour cells might need to escape these cell shape restrictions. Thus, robust controls of the cell shape machinery may represent a critical safeguard against carcinogenesis.

The perinuclear theca protein Calicin helps shape the sperm head and maintain the nuclear structure in mice.

The perinuclear theca (PT) is a cytoskeletal element encapsulating the sperm nucleus; however, our understanding of the physiological roles of PT in sperm is very limited. We show that Calicin interacts with itself and many other PT components, indicating it may serve as an organizing center of the PT assembly. Calicin is detectable first when surrounding the acrosome, then detected around the entire nucleus, and finally translocated to the postacrosomal region of spermatid heads. Intriguingly, loss of Calicin specifically causes surface subsidence of sperm heads in the nuclear condensation stage. Calicin interacts with inner acrosomal membrane (IAM) protein Spaca1 and nuclear envelope (NE) components to form an "IAM-PT-NE" structure. Intriguingly, Ccin-knockout sperm also exhibit DNA damage and failure of fertilization. Our study provides solid animal evidence to suggest that the PT encapsulating sperm nucleus helps shape the sperm head and maintain the nuclear structure.

Functional DNA-based cytoskeletons for synthetic cells.

The cytoskeleton is an essential component of a cell. It controls the cell shape, establishes the internal organization, and performs vital biological functions. Building synthetic cytoskeletons that mimic key features of their natural counterparts delineates a crucial step towards synthetic cells assembled from the bottom up. To this end, DNA nanotechnology represents one of the most promising routes, given the inherent sequence specificity, addressability and programmability of DNA. Here we demonstrate functional DNA-based cytoskeletons operating in microfluidic cell-sized compartments. The synthetic cytoskeletons consist of DNA tiles self-assembled into filament networks. These filaments can be rationally designed and controlled to imitate features of natural cytoskeletons, including reversible assembly and ATP-triggered polymerization, and we also explore their potential for guided vesicle transport in cell-sized confinement. Also, they possess engineerable characteristics, including assembly and disassembly powered by DNA hybridization or aptamer-target interactions and autonomous transport of gold nanoparticles. This work underpins DNA nanotechnology as a key player in building synthetic cells.

The microtubule cytoskeleton in cardiac mechanics and heart failure.

The microtubule network of cardiac muscle cells has unique architectural and biophysical features to accommodate the demands of the working heart. Advances in live-cell imaging and in deciphering the 'tubulin code' have shone new light on this cytoskeletal network and its role in heart failure. Microtubule-based transport orchestrates the growth and maintenance of the contractile apparatus through spatiotemporal control of translation, while also organizing the specialized membrane systems required for excitation-contraction coupling. To withstand the high mechanical loads of the working heart, microtubules are post-translationally modified and physically reinforced. In response to stress to the myocardium, the microtubule network remodels, typically through densification, post-translational modification and stabilization. Under these conditions, physically reinforced microtubules resist the motion of the cardiomyocyte and increase myocardial stiffness. Accordingly, modified microtubules have emerged as a therapeutic target for reducing stiffness in heart failure. In this Review, we discuss the latest evidence on the contribution of microtubules to cardiac mechanics, the drivers of microtubule network remodelling in cardiac pathologies and the therapeutic potential of targeting cardiac microtubules in acquired heart diseases.

Modeling axonal regeneration by changing cytoskeletal dynamics in stem cell-derived motor nerve organoids.

Oxidative stress triggers axon degeneration and cell death, leading to the development of neurodegenerative diseases. Spinal motor nerves project very long axons, increasing the burden on axonal transport and metabolism. As such, spinal motor nerves are expected to be susceptible to oxidative stress, but model systems for visualizing and investigating acutely degenerating motor axons are limited. In this study, we establish motor nerve organoids from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) with properties similar to those of neuromesodermal progenitors (NMPs), a population of progenitor cells that comprise the caudal spinal cord. Three-dimensional differentiation of organoids efficiently gave rise to mature motor neurons within 18 days. Adherent organoids showed robust axon fascicles and active growth cones under normal conditions. In addition, more homogenous and efficient generation of motor neurons were achieved when organoids were dissociated into individual cells. Hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress resulted in a broad range of signs of axon degeneration including the disappearance of growth cones and neurites, axon retraction, axon fragmentation and bleb formation, and apoptotic cell death, whose severity can be reliably quantifiable in our culture system. Remarkably, cytoskeletal drugs modulating actin or microtubule turnover differentially facilitated axon dynamics and increased axon regenerative potential. Taken together, our motor nerve organoid model could be potentially useful for drug screens evaluating the rearrangement of cytoskeletons in regenerating motor axons.

Tension-dependent stabilization of E-cadherin limits cell-cell contact expansion in zebrafish germ-layer progenitor cells.

Tension of the actomyosin cell cortex plays a key role in determining cell-cell contact growth and size. The level of cortical tension outside of the cell-cell contact, when pulling at the contact edge, scales with the total size to which a cell-cell contact can grow [J.-L. Maître et al., Science 338, 253-256 (2012)]. Here, we show in zebrafish primary germ-layer progenitor cells that this monotonic relationship only applies to a narrow range of cortical tension increase and that above a critical threshold, contact size inversely scales with cortical tension. This switch from cortical tension increasing to decreasing progenitor cell-cell contact size is caused by cortical tension promoting E-cadherin anchoring to the actomyosin cytoskeleton, thereby increasing clustering and stability of E-cadherin at the contact. After tension-mediated E-cadherin stabilization at the contact exceeds a critical threshold level, the rate by which the contact expands in response to pulling forces from the cortex sharply drops, leading to smaller contacts at physiologically relevant timescales of contact formation. Thus, the activity of cortical tension in expanding cell-cell contact size is limited by tension-stabilizing E-cadherin-actin complexes at the contact.

JIP3 links lysosome transport to regulation of multiple components of the axonal cytoskeleton.

Lysosome axonal transport is important for the clearance of cargoes sequestered by the endocytic and autophagic pathways. Building on observations that mutations in the JIP3 (MAPK8IP3) gene result in lysosome-filled axonal swellings, we analyzed the impact of JIP3 depletion on the cytoskeleton of human neurons. Dynamic focal lysosome accumulations were accompanied by disruption of the axonal periodic scaffold (spectrin, F-actin and myosin II) throughout each affected axon. Additionally, axonal microtubule organization was locally disrupted at each lysosome-filled swelling. This local axonal microtubule disorganization was accompanied by accumulations of both F-actin and myosin II. These results indicate that transport of axonal lysosomes is functionally interconnected with mechanisms that control the organization and maintenance of the axonal cytoskeleton. They have potential relevance to human neurological disease arising from JIP3 mutations as well as for neurodegenerative diseases associated with the focal accumulations of lysosomes within axonal swellings such as Alzheimer's disease.

Adenosine 2A receptor and TIM3 suppress cytolytic killing of tumor cells via cytoskeletal polarization.

Tumors generate an immune-suppressive environment that prevents effective killing of tumor cells by CD8+ cytotoxic T cells (CTL). It remains largely unclear upon which cell type and at which stage of the anti-tumor response mediators of suppression act. We have combined an in vivo tumor model with a matching in vitro reconstruction of the tumor microenvironment based on tumor spheroids to identify suppressors of anti-tumor immunity that directly act on interaction between CTL and tumor cells and to determine mechanisms of action. An adenosine 2A receptor antagonist, as enhanced by blockade of TIM3, slowed tumor growth in vivo. Engagement of the adenosine 2A receptor and TIM3 reduced tumor cell killing in spheroids, impaired CTL cytoskeletal polarization ex vivo and in vitro and inhibited CTL infiltration into tumors and spheroids. With this role in CTL killing, blocking A2AR and TIM3 may complement therapies that enhance T cell priming, e.g. anti-PD-1 and anti-CTLA-4.

PACSIN proteins in vivo: Roles in development and physiology.

Protein kinase C and casein kinase substrate in neurons (PACSINs), or syndapins (synaptic dynamin-associated proteins), are a family of proteins involved in the regulation of cell cytoskeleton, intracellular trafficking and signalling. Over the last twenty years, PACSINs have been mostly studied in the in vitro and ex vivo settings, and only in the last decade reports on their function in vivo have emerged. We first summarize the identification, structure and cellular functions of PACSINs, and then focus on the relevance of PACSINs in vivo. During development in various model organisms, PACSINs participate in diverse processes, such as neural crest cell development, gastrulation, laterality development and neuromuscular junction formation. In mouse, PACSIN2 regulates angiogenesis during retinal development and in human, PACSIN2 associates with monosomy and embryonic implantation. In adulthood, PACSIN1 has been extensively studied in the brain and shown to regulate neuromorphogenesis, receptor trafficking and synaptic plasticity. Several genetic studies suggest a role for PACSIN1 in the development of schizophrenia, which is also supported by the phenotype of mice depleted of PACSIN1. PACSIN2 plays an essential role in the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis and participates in kidney repair processes after injury. PACSIN3 is abundant in muscle tissue and necessary for caveolar biogenesis to create membrane reservoirs, thus controlling muscle function, and has been linked to certain genetic muscular disorders. The above examples illustrate the importance of PACSINs in diverse physiological or tissue repair processes in various organs, and associations to diseases when their functions are disturbed.