Hemin-induced increase in saponin content contributes to the alleviation of osmotic and cold stress damage to Conyza blinii in a heme oxygenase 1-dependent manner.

Hemin can improve the stress resistance of plants through the heme oxygenase system. Additionally, substances contained in plants, such as secondary metabolites, can improve stress resistance. However, few studies have explored the effects of hemin on secondary metabolite content. Therefore, the effects of hemin on saponin synthesis and the mechanism of plant injury relief by hemin in Conyza blinii were investigated in this study. Hemin treatment promoted plant growth and increased the antioxidant enzyme activity and saponin content of C. blinii under osmotic stress and cold stress. Further study showed that hemin could provide sufficient precursors for saponin synthesis by improving the photosynthetic capacity of C. blinii and increasing the gene expression of key enzymes in the saponin synthesis pathway, thus increasing the saponin content. Moreover, the promotion effect of hemin on saponin synthesis is dependent on heme oxygenase-1 and can be reversed by the inhibitor Zn-protoporphyrin-IX (ZnPPIX). This study revealed that hemin can increase the saponin content of C. blinii and alleviate the damage caused by abiotic stress, and it also broadened the understanding of the relationship between hemin and secondary metabolites in plant abiotic stress relief.

Increased temperatures and elevated CO2 levels reduce the sensitivity of Conyza canadensis and Chenopodium album to glyphosate.

Herbicides are the most commonly used means of controlling weeds. Recently, there has been growing concern over the potential impacts of global climate change, specifically, increasing temperatures and elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations, on the sensitivity of weeds to herbicides. Here, glyphosate response of both Conyza canadensis and Chenopodium album was evaluated under different environmental conditions. Reduced glyphosate sensitivity was observed in both species in response to increased temperature, elevated CO2 level, and the combination of both factors. Increased temperature had greater effect on plant survival than elevated CO2 level. In combination, high temperature and elevated CO2 level resulted in loss of apical dominance and rapid necrosis in glyphosate-treated plants. To investigate the mechanistic basis of reduced glyphosate sensitivity, translocation was examined using 14C-glyphosate. In plants that were subjected to high temperatures and elevated CO2 level, glyphosate was more rapidly translocated out of the treated leaf to shoot meristems and roots than in plants grown under control conditions. These results suggest that altered glyphosate translocation and tissue-specific sequestration may be the basis of reduced plant sensitivity. Therefore, overreliance on glyphosate for weed control under changing climatic conditions may result in more weed control failures.

Biology and management of two important Conyza weeds: a global review.

Weed management is one of the prime concerns for sustainable crop production. Conyza bonariensis and Conyza canadensis are two of the most problematic, noxious, invasive and widespread weeds in modern-day agriculture. The biology, ecology and interference of C. bonariensis and C. canadensis have been reviewed here to highlight pragmatic management options. Both these species share a unique set of biological features, which enables them to invade and adapt a wide range of environmental conditions. Distinct reproductive biology and an efficient seed dispersal mechanism help these species to spread rapidly. Ability to interfere strongly and to host crop pests makes these two species worst weeds of cropping systems. These weed species cause 28-68 % yield loss in important field crops such as soybean and cotton every year. These weeds are more prevalent in no-till systems and, thus, becoming a major issue in conservation agriculture. Cultural practices such as crop rotations, seed rate manipulation, mulching, inter-row tillage and narrow row spacing may provide an effective control of these species. However, such methods are not feasible and applicable under all types of conditions. Different herbicides also provide a varying degree of control depending on crop, agronomic practices, herbicide dose, application time and season. However, both these species have evolved resistance against multiple herbicides, including glyphosate and paraquat. The use of alternative herbicides and integrated management strategies may provide better control of herbicide-resistant C. bonariensis and C. canadensis. Management plans based on the eco-biological interactions of these species may prove sustainable in the future.

Lead tolerance mechanism in Conyza canadensis: subcellular distribution, ultrastructure, antioxidative defense system, and phytochelatins.

We used hydroponic experiments to examine the effects of different concentrations of lead (Pb) on the performance of the Pb-tolerable plant Conyza canadensis. In these experiments, most of the Pb was accumulated in the roots; there was very little Pb accumulated in stems and leaves. C. canadensis is able to take up significant amounts of Pb whilst greatly restricting its transportation to specific parts of the aboveground biomass. High Pb concentrations inhibited plant growth, increased membrane permeability, elevated antioxidant enzyme activity in roots, and caused a significant increase in root H2O2 and malondialdehyde content. Analysis of Pb content at the subcellular level showed that most Pb was associated with the cell wall fraction, followed by the nucleus-rich fraction, and with a minority present in the mitochondrial and soluble fractions. Furthermore, transmission electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray analysis of root cells revealed that the cell wall and intercellular space in C. canadensis roots are the main locations of Pb accumulation. Additionally, high Pb concentrations adversely affected the cellular structure of C. canadensis roots. The increased enzyme activity suggests that the antioxidant system may play an important role in eliminating or alleviating Pb toxicity in C. canadensis roots. However, the levels of non-protein sulfhydryl compounds, glutathione, and phytochelatin did not significantly change in either the roots or leaves under Pb-contaminated treatments. Our results provide strong evidence that cell walls restrict Pb uptake into the root and act as an important barrier protecting root cells, while demonstrating that antioxidant enzyme levels are correlated with Pb exposure. These findings demonstrate the roles played by these detoxification mechanisms in supporting Pb tolerance in C. canadensis.

Physiological, morphological and biochemical studies of glyphosate tolerance in Mexican Cologania (Cologania broussonetii (Balb.) DC.).

In recent years, glyphosate-tolerant legumes have been used as cover crops for weed management in tropical areas of Mexico. Mexican cologania (Cologania broussonetii (Balb.) DC.) is an innate glyphosate-tolerant legume with a potential as a cover crop in temperate areas of the country. In this work, glyphosate tolerance was characterized in two Mexican cologania (a treated (T) and an untreated (UT)) populations as being representatives of the species, compared in turn to a glyphosate-susceptible hairy fleabane (S) (Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq.) population. Experiments revealed that T and UT Mexican cologania populations had a higher tolerance index (TI), and a lower shikimic acid accumulation and foliar retention than the hairy fleabane S population. Absorption and translocation, leaf morphology and metabolism studies were only carried out in the Mexican cologania T population and the hairy fleabane S population. The latter absorbed 37% more (14)C-glyphosate compared to the Mexican cologania T at 96 h after treatment (HAT). Mexican cologania T translocated less herbicide from the treated leaf to the remainder of the plant than hairy fleabane S. The Mexican cologania T presented a greater epicuticular wax coverage percentage than the hairy fleabane S. This morphological characteristic contributed to the low glyphosate absorption observed in the Mexican cologania. In addition, the Mexican cologania T metabolized glyphosate mainly into AMPA, formaldehyde and sarcosine. These results indicate that the high glyphosate tolerance observed in Mexican cologania is mainly due to the poor penetration and translocation of glyphosate into the active site, and the high glyphosate degradation into non-toxic substances.

Conyza species: distribution and evolution of multiple target-site herbicide resistances.

MAIN CONCLUSION: Distribution of Conyza species is well correlated with human interference. Multiple herbicide resistance is caused by the attempt to overcome resistance to one mode of action by overuse of another. Conyza canadensis (CC) and Conyza bonariensis (CB) are troublesome weeds around the world. Extensive use of herbicides has led to the evolution of numerous Conyza spp. herbicide-resistant populations. Seeds of 91 CC and CB populations were collected across Israel. They were mostly found (86 %) in roadsides and urban habitats, two disturbed habitats that had been dramatically impacted by human activities, thus we classify these species as anthropogenic. Although pyrithiobac-sodium was only used in cotton fields, 90 % of Conyza spp. populations were identified as pyrithiobac-sodium resistant, suggesting possible natural resistance to pyrithiobac-sodium. CC21 and CC17 C. canadensis populations were highly resistant to all tested ALS inhibitors due to a substitution in the ALS gene from Trp574 to Leu. They were also atrazine resistant due to a substitution in the psbA gene from Ser264 to Gly. The high level of imazapyr and pyrithiobac-sodium resistance observed in the CC10 population was due to an Ala205 to Val substitution. However, high resistance to sulfometuron methyl and pyrithiobac-sodium in population CC6 was due to a point mutation at Pro197 to Ser. All resistant plants of CC21 population showed both psbA (Ser264 to Gly) and ALS (Trp574 to Leu) substitutions, leading us to the conclusion that the attempt to overcome resistance to one mode of action by overuse of another will most likely lead to multiple herbicide resistance. Furthermore, we concluded that only individuals that carry both mutations could survive the shift between the two modes of action and overcome the fitness cost associated with the PSII resistance.

Conyza canadensis suppresses plant diversity in its nonnative ranges but not at home: a transcontinental comparison.

The impact of invasive species across their native and nonnative ranges is poorly quantified and this impedes a complete understanding of biological invasions. We compared the impact of the native North American plant, Conyza canadensis, which is invasive to Eurasia, on species richness at home and in a number of introduced regions through well replicated transcontinental field studies, glasshouse experiments and individual-based models. Our results demonstrated mostly negative relationships between C. canadensis abundance and native species richness in nonnative ranges, but either positive or no relationships in its native North American range. In glasshouse experiments, the total biomass of Conyza was suppressed more by species from its native range than by species from regions where it is nonnative, but the effects of Conyza on other species did not show a consistent biogeographical pattern. Finally, individual-based models led to the exclusion of Conyza from North American scenarios but to high abundances in scenarios with species from the nonnative ranges of Conyza. We illustrate biogeographical differences in the impact of an invader across regional scales and suggest that inherent differences in one specific aspect of competitive ability, tolerance to the effects of other species, may play some role in these differences.

[Photosynthetic characteristics of an invasive plant Conyza canadensis and its associated plants].

To explore the invasion mechanisms of Conyza canadensis and develop effective control measures, this paper studied the photosynthetic characteristics of the invasive plant and its main associated plants Ixeris chinensis and Commelina communis. The light saturation point and light compensation point of C. canadensis were 1634.00 and 23.84 micromol x m(-2) x s(-1), respectively, which were between those of the two associated plants. The maximum net photosynthetic rate of C. canadensis below light saturation point was 28.12 micromol x m(-2) x s(-1), being much higher than that of the two associated plants. The apparent quantum yield of C. canadensis was 0.06, equal to that of I. chinensis but higher than that of C. communis. The CO2 saturation point and CO2 compensation point of C. canadensis were 834.00 and 23.69 micromol x mol(-1), respectively. The maximum net photosynthetic rate of C. canadensis below CO2 saturation point was 31.97 micromol x m(-2) x s(-1), which was between that of the two associated species. The carboxylation efficiency of C. canadensis was 0.078, being higher than that of the two associated species. The variations of photosynthetically active radiation and CO2 concentration had little effects on the stomatal conductance and transpiration rate of the three plants, but significantly affected their water use efficiency. C. canadensis had higher photosynthetic rate and material accumulation capability, and its high productivity could be one of the important factors for its successful invasion.

Tissue culture and transient transformation of Marestail (Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist).

Glyphosate resistant crops are useful to agriculture by facilitating the use of nonselective herbicides, such as RoundUp, that have low human and environmental toxicity. The occurrence of glyphosate resistant weeds, however, has raised concern about the future utility of these crops. Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist (marestail or horseweed) is one such glyphosate resistant weed that has yet to be fully analyzed or established in tissue culture. Tissue culture enables the examination of physiological characteristics of a plant in an aseptic and controlled environment. For the present study, mairstail was cultured on a Murashige and Skoog based medium supplemented with 6-benzylaminopurine, and alpha-naphthaleneacetic acid. Plant regeneration was achieved on the same basal medium supplemented with only gibberellic acid. Glyphosate resistance could be demonstrated in the cultured tissues. The cultures could also be transformed with Agrobacterium tumefaciens without chemically inducing virulence using phenolics or glucose and resulting in a transformation frequency (transgenic events per total number of explants used) of about 13%. The tissue culture growth, preliminary glyphosate resistance data and genetic transformation data gathered in this project provide the means to further evaluate the mode of glyphosate resistance expressed by marestail.