Targeted surface marker screening on neuronal structures in the human choroid.

While choroidal neuronal control is known to be essential for retinal and ocular health, its mechanisms are not understood. Especially, the local choroidal innervation mediated by intrinsic choroidal neurons (ICN) remains enigmatic. Neuronal functionality depends on the synaptic neurotransmitters and neuroregulatory peptides involved as well as from membrane components presented on the cell surface. Since the neuronal surface molecular expression patterns in the choroid are currently unknown, we sought to determine the presence of various cluster-of-differentiation (CD) antigens in choroidal neuronal structures with a particular focus on ICN. Human choroids were prepared for immunohistochemistry and the pan-neuronal marker PGP9.5 was combined with CD15, CD24, CD29, CD34, CD46, CD49b, CD49e, CD56, CD58, CD59, CD71, CD81, CD90, CD146, CD147, CD151, CD165, CD171, CD184, CD200, CD271 and fluorescence- and confocal laser scanning-microscopy was used for documentation. The following antigens were found to be co-localized in PGP.9.5+ nerve fibers and ICN perikarya: CD29, CD34, CD56, CD81, CD90, CD146, CD147, CD151, CD171, CD200 and CD271, while all other CD markers where not detectable. Whereas CD24- and CD59- immunoreactivity was clearly absent in ICN perikarya, some neural processes of the choroidal stroma displayed CD24 and CD59 immunopositivity. While a multitude of the aforementioned CD-markers were indeed detected in nervous structures of the choroid, the CD24+ and CD59+ nerve fibers most likely have extrinsic origin from cranial ganglia since ICN cell bodies were found to lack both markers. These findings illustrate how the detailed analysis of CD molecules described here opens novel avenues for future functional studies on choroidal innervation and its control.

Markers of the sympathetic, parasympathetic and sensory nervous system are altered in the human diabetic choroid.

BACKGROUND: We sought to evaluate alterations in markers of the autonomic nervous system in human diabetic choroid. METHODS: Eighteen eyeballs from subjects with diabetes and 22 eyeballs from subjects without diabetes were evaluated in this study. Synaptophysin, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DßH), neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), vesicular monoamine transporter II (VMAT-2), vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT), vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), neuropeptide Y (NPY), and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) levels were detected by western blot analysis and immunofluorescence was performed in some cases. Furthermore, differences in adrenergic (α1- and ß2-subtypes) and cholinergic (M1 and M3) receptor levels between diabetic subjects and controls were noted. RESULTS: Decreased synaptophysin levels were found in diabetic choroids by western blot analysis and a reduction of synaptophysin-immunoreactive nerves was also found by immunofluorescence. Furthermore, a decrease of the levels of the key enzyme (TH) and transporter (VMAT2) of norepinephrine was evident both by western blot analysis and immunofluorescence. Additionally, increased NPY, VAChT, nNOS, and CGRP levels were observed in diabetic choroids. The levels of adrenergic (ß2 subtype) and acetylcholine (M1 subtype) receptors decreased in diabetic choroids, as shown by western blotting and although the differences in α1 and M3 were not significant, there was a downward trend. CONCLUSIONS: In the diabetic choroid, the levels of neurotransmitters, enzymes, and receptors associated with choroidal blood flow regulation are altered. These changes may affect the regulation of choroidal blood flow and may be associated with impaired retinal function and retinal pathology.

Effects of autonomic denervations on the rhythms in axial length and choroidal thickness in chicks.

In chicks, axial length and choroidal thickness undergo circadian oscillations. The choroid is innervated by both branches of the autonomic nervous system, but their contribution(s) to these rhythms is unknown. We used two combination lesions to test this. For parasympathectomy, nerve VII was sectioned presynaptic to the pterygopalatine ganglia, and the ciliary post-ganglionics were cut (double lesion; n = 8). Triple lesions excised the sympathetic superior cervical ganglion as well (n = 8). Sham surgery was done in controls (n = 7). 8-14 days later, axial dimensions were measured with ultrasonography at 4-h intervals over 24 h. Rhythm parameters were assessed using a "best fit" function, and growth rates measured. Both types of lesions resulted in ultradian (> 1 cycle/24 h) rhythms in choroidal thickness and axial length, and increased vitreous chamber growth (Exp-fellow: double: 69 µm; triple: 104 µm; p < 0.05). For double lesions, the frequency was 1.5 cycles/day for both rhythms; for triples the choroidal rhythm was 1.5 cycles/day, and the axial was 3 cycles/day. For double lesions, the amplitudes of both rhythms were larger than those of sham surgery controls (axial: 107 vs 54 µm; choroid: 124 vs 29 µm, p < 0.05). These findings provide evidence for the involvement of abnormal ocular rhythms in the growth stimulation underlying myopia development.

Defective Choroidal Blood Flow Baroregulation and Retinal Dysfunction and Pathology Following Sympathetic Denervation of Choroid.

Purpose: We sought to determine if sympathetic denervation of choroid impairs choroidal blood flow (ChBF) regulation and harms retina. Methods: Rats received bilateral superior cervical ganglionectomy (SCGx), which depleted choroid of sympathetic but not parasympathetic innervation. The flash-evoked scotopic ERG and visual acuity were measured 2 to 3 months after SCGx, and vasoconstrictive ChBF baroregulation during high systemic arterial blood pressure (ABP) induced by LNAME was assessed by laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF). Eyes were harvested for histologic evaluation. Results: ChBF increased in parallel with ABP in SCGx rats over an ABP range of 90% to 140% of baseline ABP, while in sham rats ChBF remained stable and uncorrelated with ABP. ERG a- and b-wave latencies and amplitudes, and visual acuity were significantly reduced after SCGx. In SCGx retina, Müller cell GFAP immunolabeling was upregulated 2.5-fold, and Iba1+ microglia were increased 3-fold. Dopaminergic amacrine cell fibers in inner plexiform layer were reduced in SCGx rats, and photoreceptors were slightly depleted. Functional deficits and pathology were correlated with impairments in sympathetic regulation of ChBF. Conclusions: These studies indicate that sympathetic denervation of choroid impairs ChBF baroregulation during elevated ABP, leading to choroidal overperfusion. This defect in ChBF regulation is associated with impaired retinal function and retinal pathology. As sympathetic ChBF baroregulatory defects have been observed in young individuals with complement factor H (CFH) polymorphisms associated with risk for AMD, our results suggest these defects may harm retina, perhaps contributing to AMD pathogenesis.

VIP changes during daytime in chicken intrinsic choroidal neurons.

PURPOSE: Ocular autonomic control is mediated by sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibres. Their interactions are complemented by primary afferent nerve fibers of and intrinsic choroidal neurons (ICN). As the vasodilatative neuropeptide, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), is expressed in extrinsic and intrinsic ocular neurons, it is of special interest in ophthalmic research. Since circadian changes of ocular blood flow are known in humans and birds, this study aimed at investigating VIP expression at different daytimes in chicken choroid, the preferred model species in ICN research. METHODS: 12 eyes of 12 chickens were retrieved, slaughtered at 8.00-9.30 a.m. (n = 6) and 8.00 p.m. (n = 6), respectively, and choroidal wholemounts were prepared for immunofluorescence of VIP. VIP-positive ICN of both groups were quantified and density of VIP-positive axons assessed semi-quantitatively. In 28 additional eyes retrieved in the morning (n = 14) and evening (n = 14), choroidal VIP content was determined by ELISA. Morning and evening data were analyzed statistically. NADPH-diaphorase (NADPH-d, ICN cell marker) was done at additional 12 whole mount choroids of 12 chicken, retrieved in the morning (n = 6) and evening (n = 6). RESULTS: (1) Numbers of VIP positive neurons differed significantly between morning: (239.17 ±â€¯113.9) and evening: (550.83 ±â€¯245.7; p = 0.018). (2) Numbers of VIP-positive perikarya were significantly more accumulated in the temporal part of the choroid in the evening than in the morning (p = 0.026). (3) VIP positive axon density was found to be similar throughout the choroid in the morning and evening. (4) Number of NADPH-d positive neurons was not significantly different between morning (848.8 ±â€¯399.5) and evening (945.8 ±â€¯622.1, p > 0.05). (5) ELISA demonstrated a significant difference of VIP content (p = 0.012) in tissues harvested in the morning (145.41 ±â€¯43.3 pg/ml) compared to evening (221.44 ±â€¯106.3 pg/ml). CONCLUSIONS: As VIP positive axon density was similar in the morning and the evening throughout the choroid, PPG and ICN seemed to contribute equally to the axon network. Yet, changes in the total choroidal VIP content, the numbers of VIP positive perikarya, reflecting the intracellular VIP content, and their topographical distribution at two different days-times argue for a different status of activation of both neuronal sources in contrast to the equal amount of NADPHD-d positive neurons. The higher VIP content in the evening, compared to the morning, correlates with a known circadian rhythm of a lower IOP and a higher choroidal thickness at night. Thus, these changes may argue for a potential role of ICN in the regulation of ocular homeostasis and integrity.

Cellular and physiological mechanisms underlying blood flow regulation in the retina and choroid in health and disease.

We review the cellular and physiological mechanisms responsible for the regulation of blood flow in the retina and choroid in health and disease. Due to the intrinsic light sensitivity of the retina and the direct visual accessibility of fundus blood vessels, the eye offers unique opportunities for the non-invasive investigation of mechanisms of blood flow regulation. The ability of the retinal vasculature to regulate its blood flow is contrasted with the far more restricted ability of the choroidal circulation to regulate its blood flow by virtue of the absence of glial cells, the markedly reduced pericyte ensheathment of the choroidal vasculature, and the lack of intermediate filaments in choroidal pericytes. We review the cellular and molecular components of the neurovascular unit in the retina and choroid, techniques for monitoring retinal and choroidal blood flow, responses of the retinal and choroidal circulation to light stimulation, the role of capillaries, astrocytes and pericytes in regulating blood flow, putative signaling mechanisms mediating neurovascular coupling in the retina, and changes that occur in the retinal and choroidal circulation during diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, glaucoma, and Alzheimer's disease. We close by discussing issues that remain to be explored.

Intrinsic choroidal neurons in the chicken eye: chemical coding and synaptic input.

Intrinsic choroidal neurons (ICNs) exist in some primates and bird species. They may act on both vascular and non-vascular smooth muscle cells, potentially influencing choroidal blood flow. Here, we report on the chemical coding of ICNs and eye-related cranial ganglia in the chicken, an important model in myopia research, and further to determine synaptic input onto ICN. Chicken choroid, ciliary, superior cervical, pterygopalatine, and trigeminal ganglia were prepared for double or triple immunohistochemistry of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), dopamine-beta-hydroxylase, galanin (GAL), neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), somatostatin (SOM), tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), vesicular monoamine-transporter 2 (VMAT2), and alpha-smooth muscle actin. For documentation, light, fluorescence, and confocal laser scanning microscopy were used. Chicken ICNs express nNOS/VIP/GAL and do not express ChAT and SOM. ICNs are approached by TH/VMAT2-, CGRP-, and ChAT-positive nerve fibers. About 50% of the pterygopalatine ganglion neurons and about 9% of the superior cervical ganglion neurons share the same chemical code as ICN. SOM-positive neurons in the ciliary ganglion are GAL/NOS negative. CGRP-positive neurons in the trigeminal ganglion lack GAL/SOM. The neurochemical phenotype and synaptic input of ICNs in chicken resemble that of other bird and primate species. Because ICNs lack cholinergic markers, they cannot be readily incorporated into current concepts of the autonomic nervous system. The data obtained provide the basis for the interpretation of future functional experiments to clarify the role of these cells in achieving ocular homeostasis.

The multifunctional choroid.

The choroid of the eye is primarily a vascular structure supplying the outer retina. It has several unusual features: It contains large membrane-lined lacunae, which, at least in birds, function as part of the lymphatic drainage of the eye and which can change their volume dramatically, thereby changing the thickness of the choroid as much as four-fold over a few days (much less in primates). It contains non-vascular smooth muscle cells, especially behind the fovea, the contraction of which may thin the choroid, thereby opposing the thickening caused by expansion of the lacunae. It has intrinsic choroidal neurons, also mostly behind the central retina, which may control these muscles and may modulate choroidal blood flow as well. These neurons receive sympathetic, parasympathetic and nitrergic innervation. The choroid has several functions: Its vasculature is the major supply for the outer retina; impairment of the flow of oxygen from choroid to retina may cause Age-Related Macular Degeneration. The choroidal blood flow, which is as great as in any other organ, may also cool and warm the retina. In addition to its vascular functions, the choroid contains secretory cells, probably involved in modulation of vascularization and in growth of the sclera. Finally, the dramatic changes in choroidal thickness move the retina forward and back, bringing the photoreceptors into the plane of focus, a function demonstrated by the thinning of the choroid that occurs when the focal plane is moved back by the wearing of negative lenses, and, conversely, by the thickening that occurs when positive lenses are worn. In addition to focusing the eye, more slowly than accommodation and more quickly than emmetropization, we argue that the choroidal thickness changes also are correlated with changes in the growth of the sclera, and hence of the eye. Because transient increases in choroidal thickness are followed by a prolonged decrease in synthesis of extracellular matrix molecules and a slowing of ocular elongation, and attempts to decouple the choroidal and scleral changes have largely failed, it seems that the thickening of the choroid may be mechanistically linked to the scleral synthesis of macromolecules, and thus may play an important role in the homeostatic control of eye growth, and, consequently, in the etiology of myopia and hyperopia.

Comprovação anatomopatológica da presença de tecido vascular e nervoso evidenciado à ecografia como eco tangencial ao descolamento de coróide: relato de dois casos / Histopathologic confirmation of vascular and nervous tissue identified on ultrasound as an tangential image to choroidal detachment: report of two cases

São apresentados dois casos de descolamento de coróide em olhos com endoftalmite submetidos a enucleação. O estudo anatomopatológico permitiu identificar a presença de tecido vascular e nervoso interpondo-se entre a esclera e coróide deslocada, como havia sido evidenciado pela ecografia.

Two cases of endophthalmitis with choroidal detachment submitted to enucleation are presented. The histopathologic study allowed the identification of vascular and nervous tissue between the choroid and sclera, as it was seen on ultrasound examination.

[Histopathologic confirmation of vascular and nervous tissue identified on ultrasound as an tangential image to choroidal detachment: report of two cases]. / Comprovação anatomopatológica da presença de tecido vascular e nervoso evidenciado à ecografia como eco tangencial ao descolamento de coróide: relato de dois casos.

Two cases of endophthalmitis with choroidal detachment submitted to enucleation are presented. The histopathologic study allowed the identification of vascular and nervous tissue between the choroid and sclera, as it was seen on ultrasound examination.

Substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide intrinsic choroidal neurons in human choroidal whole-mounts.

To determine the presence in the human choroid of substance P (SP)-and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) positive intrinsic choroidal neurons (ICNs), choroidal whole-mounts were processed for indirect immunofluorescence. An antibody to a component of the neuronal cytoskeleton, neurofilament 200 kDa (NF-200), was combined with antibodies to SP and to CGRP (neuropeptides proper to the sensory nervous system). The human choroid possesses numerous SP(+) and CGRP(+) ICNs. These neurons were observed in the suprachoroid, both in isolation and forming microganglia. For both types of ICNs studied, neurons were more numerous in the temporal than in the nasal regions. In both locations, SP(+) and CGRP(+) ICNs were more abundant in the central choroid (the choroid underneath the macular area of the retina), with cell density diminishing outwards to the choroidal periphery. There were no appreciable differences between the two populations of ICNs studied in terms of size, morphology or immunostaining characteristics. In conclusion, given that peripheral sensory innervation could be involved in the regulation of both choroidal blood flow and vascular architecture, the SP(+) and CGRP(+) ICNs described for the first time in the present work may be involved in these mechanisms of vascular regulation.

Age-related decline in VIP-positive parasympathetic nerve fibers in the human submacular choroid.

PURPOSE: An age-related decline in macular choroidal blood flow (ChBF) occurs in humans. Vasodilatory nerve fibers containing vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) innervate choroidal blood vessels. The current study was conducted to examine the possibility that an age-related loss of these fibers might occur in the submacular choroid in humans, and thus contribute to a decline in ChBF. METHODS: Macular choroid punches were collected from 35 healthy human donors ranging from 21 to 93 years of age. Choroidal samples were immunolabeled using anti-VIP and the peroxidase-antiperoxidase METHOD: VIP-positive nerve fiber abundance was quantified in up to 12 fields per punch. Fifty macular punches were analyzed, and results for eye pairs were averaged. Choroidal vessel diameter (ChVD) was measured for these same fields. The relationship between age and vessel diameter or VIP-positive fiber abundance was analyzed. Multivariate statistical models were generated correcting for gender, variables related to the tissue specimens, and potential procedural sources of variability. RESULTS: The fully adjusted multivariate models showed a significant age-related reduction in both the VIP-positive fiber abundance (P = 0.0003, adjusted R(2) = 0.51) and ChVD (P < 0.0001, adjusted R(2) = 0.63), with slopes of -0.45 and -0.19, respectively. Adjusting for the same variables, VIP-positive fiber abundance showed a significant direct correlation with ChVD. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate a significant age-related decline in VIP-positive nerve fibers and vessel diameter in the submacular choroid in disease-free human donor eyes. These findings suggest that a decline in the neural control of ChBF and vessel diameter may explain the reductions in ChBF and its adaptive control observed clinically with aging.

Age-related changes in sympathetic neurotransmission in rat retina and choroid.

While age-related night vision loss and age-related macular degeneration are well characterized, less is known about the normal aging process in the retina and choroid. The purpose of this study was to ascertain whether dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH), beta1- and beta2-adrenergic receptor gene and protein expression are altered in the retina and choroid with age. The retina and choroid were dissected from F344xBNF1 hybrid rats aged 8, 22, and 32 months. Real-time PCR and Western blot analysis were conducted to determine steady-state mRNA and protein expression. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was conducted to localize DBH protein expression in the retina. DBH protein expression was substantially decreased with age in the retina, particularly in the outer nuclear layer, with no changes in DBH expression noted in the choroid. There was a significant increase in beta1-adrenergic receptor protein expression in retinal samples at 22 months, while beta2-adrenergic receptor protein expression was not affected by age. Decreased expression of DBH with age in the retina could lead to reduced production of norepinephrine, potentially resulting in an increase of beta1-adrenergic receptor expression due to denervation supersensitivity. Gene expression for DBH, beta1- and beta2-adrenergic receptors were observed to peak at 22 months and return to baseline levels by 32 months of age in the choroid. Our findings suggest that the retina may be more sensitive to age-related loss of sympathetic neurotransmission than the choroid, which may partially explain normal age-related vision loss in the elderly.

[A comparative study of choroidal innervation in the human and the rabbit (oryctolagus cuniculus)]. / Estudio comparativo de la inervación coroidea en el hombre y en el conejo (oryctolagus cuniculus).

OBJECTIVE: To analyze morphological differences between the choroidal innervation of the human and the rabbit, the latter being a species frequently used as an experimental model of human ocular diseases. METHODS: Twelve human and 12 rabbit choroidal whole mounts were processed using an indirect immunohistochemical technique, peroxidase-anti-peroxidase and antibodies against 200 kD neurofilament. RESULTS: Choroidal nerve fibers were perivascular and intervascular. Perivascular fibers surrounded all arteries forming a network that was more developed in the rabbit. In humans, intervascular fibers were mainly concentrated at the posterior pole where they formed a denser and more highly organized plexus than in the rabbit, which did not exhibit a preferential location for these fibers. Human choroidal ganglion cells were far more numerous than in the rabbit and were concentrated in a circumferential area corresponding to the entrance of the short posterior ciliary arteries of the submacular area. In the rabbit, these cells were restricted to the peripheral choroid. CONCLUSIONS: Some differences were observed between human and rabbit choroidal innervation. The abundance of ganglion cells and their preferential distribution could be necessary to maintain a constant blood flow in the central area of the human choroid. The lack of organization of rabbit choroidal innervation at the posterior pole could be associated with an absence of the macula. These differences, along with peculiarities of retinal vascularization, should be taken into consideration when using the rabbit as an experimental model to study human eye diseases in which regulation of choroidal blood flow is involved.

Sustained upregulation of glial fibrillary acidic protein in Müller cells in pigeon retina following disruption of the parasympathetic control of choroidal blood flow.

Choroidal blood flow in pigeon eyes is light driven and controlled by a parasympathetic input from ciliary ganglion (CG) neurons that receive input from the medial subdivision of the ipsilateral nucleus of Edinger-Westphal (EWM). EWM lesions diminish basal ChBF and irreversibly prevent ipsilateral light-evoked increases in ChBF, presumably rendering the retina mildly ischemic. To characterize the location, severity, and time course of the retinal abnormality caused by an EWM lesion, we quantitatively analyzed the cellular and regional extent of Müller cell glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunolabeling up to nearly a year after an EWM lesion. We found that unilateral EWM lesions greatly increased Müller cell GFAP throughout the entire retinal depth and topographic extent of the affected eye, up to nearly a year post lesion. By contrast, destruction of the pupilloconstrictive pretectum or of the pupilloconstrictive part of lateral EW (EWL) did not appreciably increase Müller cell GFAP. Thus, the large increase in Müller cell GFAP following an EW lesion is attributable to an ongoing defect in choroidal vasodilatory function rather than to chronic pupil dilation. The Müller cell GFAP increase was greater ipsilateral than contralateral to the EWM destruction for the retinal territory deep to the heavily CG-innervated superior and temporal choroid, but not for the retinal territory deep to the poorly CG-innervated inferior and nasal choroid. The GFAP increase was light-dependent, since it did not occur in EW-lesioned birds housed in dim illumination. Our results show that the chronic vascular insufficiency caused by the loss of the EWM-mediated parasympathetic control of choroidal blood flow leads to a significant and sustained increase in retinal Müller cell GFAP. This increase could be a sign of a disturbance in retinal homeostasis that eventually leads to retinal injury and impaired visual function.

Choroidal innervation and optic neuropathy in macacque monkeys with laser- or anterior chamber perfusion-induced short-term elevation of intraocular pressure.

Long-term intraocular pressure (IOP) elevation leads to a significant reduction of the intrinsic choroidal innervation and axon loss in the optic nerve. In this study we investigated early changes in these tissues in order to clarify the putative sequence of events between choroidal ganglion cell loss and optic nerve axon loss in 19 monkeys with experimentally induced glaucoma. After 1 month of increased IOP, severe optic neuropathy but no reduction of choroidal ganglion cells (CGC) was detectable. Beginning at 2 months after treatment signs of degeneration in CGC morphology were observed. Laser treatment of the trabecular meshwork without IOP elevation caused no changes in choroidal innervation. Our results show that there is no apparent association between reduction of CGC and optic neuropathy in the early stages of IOP elevation.

Choroidal innervation in primate eyes.

Arteries and arterioles of the choroid are surrounded by numerous nerve fibers staining for nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP). In most mammalian eyes these nerve fibers derive from the pterygopalatine ganglion via the facial nerve. Stimulation of the facial nerve causes vasodilation of the choroidal vasculature. In primates with a well developed fovea centralis there are ganglion cells in the choroidal stroma which in human eyes amount to around 2000. The postganglionic nerve fibers of these choroidal ganglion cells (CGC) join the perivascular nerve fiber plexus. The CGC stain for NOS and VIP like the nerve cells within the pterygopalatine ganglion. There are, however, differences between the two cell populations. Immunohistochemical and ultrastructural classification of the CGC show that in addition to NOS and VIP almost half of the cells stain for calretinin, single ones for neuropeptide Y (NPY) and galanin. A number of cells is in close contact with numerous boutons staining for nNOS, VIP, NPY, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), vesicular monoaminergic transporter (VMAT)2, vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VACHT), calretinin, and NPY. These data indicate a more complex integrative function of CGCs e.g. volume regulation in parallel with ciliary muscle contraction during accommodation. Ultrastructural and immunohistochemical studies indicate, that CGCs in addition may have mechanosensory properties. Whether they are involved in volume-regulatory functions independent of accommodation is not yet known. In glaucoma disease the number of CGCs is significantly reduced. This holds true for eyes with primary open angle glaucoma, pseudoexfoliation glaucoma and experimentally induced monkey glaucoma indicating that elevated IOP is involved in the pathogenesis of glaucomatous CGC-degeneration.

Choroidal ganglion cells in prenatal, young, and middle-aged human donor eyes.

PURPOSE: In the current study, the appearance and development of choroidal ganglion cells (CGCs) was investigated in eyes of 18 human donors between the 13th week of gestation (wog) and 42 years of age. METHODS: The number and diameter of CGCs was evaluated in scleral and choroidal whole mounts stained for NADPH diaphorase. To demonstrate the synaptic input of the CGCs, sections were stained with antibodies against synaptophysin, vesicular acetylcholin transporter, tyrosin hydroxylase, and vesicular monoaminergic transporter 2. RESULTS: Clusters of small CGCs were first seen in the 18th wog next to the nasal and temporal long ciliary nerves. Immunohistochemistry in the 25th wog revealed 3298 and 5429 nitric oxide synthase/NADPH diaphorase positive CGCs, surrounded by numerous cholinergic and aminergic boutons. The number of CGCs decreased to 1000-2500 after birth. During postnatal development, the CGCs spread into small groups, distributed all over the choroid. The size of CGCs increased markedly up to adulthood. CONCLUSIONS: CGCs appear late during choroidal development, in parallel with the differentiation of the outer vascular layers. This coincidence might point to the primary role of the CGCs as specific vasoregulators in species with a well-developed fovea centralis.

Cervical sympathectomy causes photoreceptor-specific cell death in the rat retina.

Changes in the regulation of the vasculature of the eye may be related to some age-related ocular diseases. We have previously shown that loss of sympathetic innervation, as can normally occur with age, resulted in substantial vascular growth of the choroid. The current study was designed to determine whether changes induced by sympathetic denervation causes significant loss of photoreceptors and increased glial cell reactivity in the retina. Sympathetic denervation was performed followed by immunohistochemistry, TUNEL staining, and protein expression analysis to investigate photoreceptor loss. There was a significant reduction (30%) in photoreceptor numbers in the sympathectomized eye. This loss was due to apoptosis, as there was over a doubling in apoptotic cell numbers after sympathectomy. This loss of photoreceptors in the sympathectomized eye resulted in a significantly reduced width of the outer nuclear layer of the retina when compared to the contralateral eye. Increased glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) staining was also noted after sympathectomy in the ganglion cell layer with streaking toward the bipolar cell layer. These results suggest that loss of sympathetic innervation may cause significant changes to the physiology of the choroid.

Anatomical and functional evidence for progressive age-related decline in parasympathetic control of choroidal blood flow in pigeons.

The choroid receives extensive parasympathetic innervation, which in birds arises largely from the ciliary ganglion (CG). Since age-related changes in parasympathetic regulation of choroidal blood flow (ChBF) could contribute to age-related retinal decline, we used anatomical and functional methods to determine if ChBF control by the CG shows age-related decline in pigeons. The efficacy of the choroidal vasodilatory response to activation of the CG preganglionic input from the medial subdivision of the nucleus of Edinger-Westphal (EWM) was assessed using laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF). The EWM receives bisynaptic retinal input, and electrical stimulation of EWM or light stimulation of the retina in young animals produces dramatic choroidal vasodilation. Transcleral LDF was therefore used to measure both basal ChBF and the increases in ChBF elicited by electrical stimulation of EWM or by retinal illumination in 0.5-18 year old pigeons. Fixed cryostat sections of the eye from 0.5 to 22 year old pigeons were immunolabeled for the 3A10 neurofilament-associated antigen to determine if intrachoroidal nerve fibers arising from CG exhibited age-related loss. We focused on superior choroid, since it is the primary target for CG nerve fibers. There was a marked age-related loss in the ChBF vasodilatory response elicited by either EWM stimulation or retinal illumination, as was also true for basal ChBF. A progressive decrease in choroidal nerve fibers of CG origin, to 17% of youthful abundance by 22 years of age, was also observed. The evoked ChBF increase, and basal ChBF, achieved 50% of their age-related decline between the ages of 3 and 4 years, while half the loss in CG innervation of choroid was later, occurring by 10 years. Age-related loss of choroidal nerve fibers occurs in parallel with but more slowly than the reduction in basal ChBF and the choroidal vasodilation that can be elicited via natural (light) or electrical activation of the central neural input to CG choroidal neurons. The prominent age-related decline in parasympathetic control of ChBF early in the pigeon life span could contribute to the age-related retinal decline observed in pigeons.