Generation of a mouse model of thyroid storm and preliminary investigation of the therapeutic effects of ghrelin.

BACKGROUND: Thyroid storm (TS), a life-threatening condition that can damage multiple organs, has limited therapeutic options. Hypercytokinemia is a suggested background, but the pathological condition is unclear and there are no appropriate animal models. We aimed to develop a TS mouse model by administration of triiodothyronine and lipopolysaccharide, and then to examine the effects of ghrelin on this model. METHODS: We evaluated the use of serum IL-6 levels as a representative marker of hypercytokinemia in patients with TS. To establish the mouse model, preliminary experiments were conducted to determine the non-lethal doses of triiodothyronine and lipopolysaccharide when administered individually. As a TS model, C57BL/6 mice were administered with triiodothyronine 1.0 mg/kg (subcutaneously, once daily for seven consecutive days) and lipopolysaccharide 0.5 mg/kg (intraperitoneally, on day 7) to develop a lethal model with approximately 30% survival on day 8. We assessed the survival ratio, mouse sepsis scores and blood biomarkers (IL-6, metanephrine, alanine aminotransferase) and evaluated the effects of ghrelin 300 µg/kg on these parameters in TS model. RESULTS: Serum IL-6 was increased in patients with TS compared with those with Graves' disease as the diseased control (18.2 vs. 2.85 pg/mL, P < .05, n = 4 each). The dosage for the murine TS model was triiodothyronine 1.0 mg/kg and lipopolysaccharide 0.5 mg/kg. The TS model group had increased mouse sepsis score, serum IL-6, metanephrine and alanine aminotransferase. In this model, the ghrelin improved the survival rate to 66.7% (P < .01, vs. 0% [saline-treated group]) as well as the mouse sepsis score, and it decreased the serum IL-6 and metanephrine. CONCLUSION: We established an animal model of TS that exhibits pathophysiological states similar to human TS with induction of serum IL-6 and other biomarkers by administration of T3 and LPS. The results suggest the potential effectiveness of ghrelin for TS in humans.

Case report: management of a young male patient with diabetic ketoacidosis and thyroid storm.

This report describes a case of concomitant diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and thyroid storm (TS) in a 20-year-old male patient that presented both diagnostic and management challenges owing to their intricate interrelationship in endocrine-metabolic disorders. The patient, previously diagnosed with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and hyperthyroidism, was admitted to the emergency department with symptoms of DKA and progressive exacerbation of TS. Initial treatment focused on correcting DKA; as the disease progressed to TS, it was promptly recognized and treated. This case emphasizes the rarity of simultaneous occurrence of DKA and TS, as well as the challenges in clinical diagnosis posed by the interacting pathophysiological processes and overlapping clinical manifestations of DKA and TS. The patient's treatment process involved multiple disciplines, and after treatment, the patient's critical condition of both endocrine metabolic diseases was alleviated, after which he recovered and was eventually discharged from the hospital. This case report aims to emphasize the need for heightened awareness in patients with complex clinical presentations, stress the possibility of concurrent complications, and underscore the importance of prompt and collaborative treatment strategies.

Thyroid storm after coronavirus disease 2019 mRNA vaccination in a patient with a history of Graves' disease after coronavirus disease 2019 infection.

We report a case where the patient may have developed Graves' disease after COVID-19 infection, and where the COVID-19 vaccination may have exacerbated the condition, inducing the onset of a thyroid storm. Although any association between the vaccine and the onset of thyroid disease is impossible to demonstrate through a single case, the antecedent COVID-19 infection and COVID-19 messenger ribonucleic acid vaccination may have synergistically contributed to the development of Graves' disease followed by thyroid storm.

A rare case of bilateral frontal lobe lesions due to thyroid storm.

Thyroid storm is a rare but well-known life-threatening complication that occurs due to acute exacerbation of thyrotoxicosis with the increased levels of circulating thyroid hormones. Reports of metabolic encephalopathy associated with thyroid storm are scarce. We describe the case of a 23-year-old male patient with no previous history of abnormal thyroid function who had consumed excessive amounts of alcohol before disease onset. The patient was found unconscious and febrile on a roadside by a passerby and was admitted to our hospital's emergency department. His primary clinical presentation included hyperthermia (40.8 °C), nodal tachycardia (180 beats/min), seizures, coma, and hypoglycemia (2.18 mmol/L). The hypoglycemia was quickly corrected after admission, but his level of consciousness showed no improvement. With aggressive screening, the patient was found to have severe thyroid dysfunction (T3 = 6.67 nmol/L, T4 = 252.00 nmol/L, free T3 = 29.20 pmol/L, free T4 = 65.30 pmol/L, and TSH = 0.001 µIU/mL). After medical treatment, plasmapheresis, hemofiltration, and hemoperfusion, the patient showed substantial improvement in thyroid hormone levels and stabilization of vital signs, but the impaired consciousness and seizures persisted. Multiple computed tomography scans revealed brain abnormalities. Magnetic resonance imaging performed after tracheal extubation revealed bilateral frontal lobe lesions. We reported a case of metabolic encephalopathy in a patient with life-threatening thyroid storm and bilateral frontal lobe lesions. Hypoglycemia may have been involved in the development of encephalopathy in our patient. Health care providers should consider thyroid storm in the differential diagnosis of hyperthermia, seizures, and coma. Early plasmapheresis, hemofiltration, and hemoperfusion can lower T4 levels and improve prognosis in patients with thyroid storm and encephalopathy.

Clinical Efficacy of Beta-1 Selective Beta-Blockers Versus Propranolol in Patients With Thyroid Storm: A Retrospective Cohort Study.

OBJECTIVES: Thyroid storm is the most severe manifestation of thyrotoxicosis. Beta-blockers are among the standard treatment regimens for this condition, with propranolol being the historically preferred option. However, 2016 guidelines issued by the Japan Thyroid Association and the Japan Endocrine Society recommend the use of beta-1 selective beta-blockers over nonselective beta-blockers, such as propranolol. Nevertheless, evidence supporting this recommendation is limited. Herein, we aimed to investigate the in-hospital mortality of patients with thyroid storms based on the choice of beta-blockers. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: The Diagnosis Procedure Combination database, a national inpatient database in Japan. PATIENTS: Patients hospitalized with thyroid storm between April 2010 and March 2022. INTERVENTIONS: Propensity-score overlap weighting was performed to compare in-hospital mortality between patients who received beta-1 selective beta-blockers and those who received propranolol. Subgroup analysis was also conducted, considering the presence or absence of acute heart failure. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Among the 2462 eligible patients, 1452 received beta-1 selective beta-blockers and 1010 received propranolol. The crude in-hospital mortality rates were 9.3% for the beta-1 selective beta-blocker group and 6.2% for the propranolol group. After adjusting for baseline variables, the use of beta-1 selective beta-blockers was not associated with lower in-hospital mortality (6.3% vs. 7.4%; odds ratio, 0.85; 95% CI, 0.57-1.26). Furthermore, no significant difference in in-hospital mortality was observed in patients with acute heart failure. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with thyroid storm, the choice between beta-1 selective beta-blockers and propranolol did not affect in-hospital mortality, regardless of the presence of acute heart failure. Therefore, both beta-1 selective beta-blockers and propranolol can be regarded as viable treatment options for beta-blocker therapy in cases of thyroid storm, contingent upon the clinical context.

Diagnostic criteria and scoring systems for thyroid storm: An evaluation of their utility - comparative review.

A thyroid storm is a life-threatening endocrine emergency characterized by severe hyperthyroidism and many systemic manifestations. Prompt recognition and treatment are essential for patient survival. This study evaluates the utility of existing diagnostic criteria and scoring systems for thyroid storm. A comprehensive literature review encompassed articles published up to December 2023. Various diagnostic criteria and scoring systems, such as the Burch-Wartofsky Point Scale and the Japanese Thyroid Association criteria, were critically assessed based on their sensitivity, specificity, and clinical applicability. Our findings reveal that existing diagnostic criteria and scoring systems, although valuable tools, exhibit limitations. They may lack sensitivity in identifying milder cases of thyroid storm or fail to differentiate it from other critical conditions. Furthermore, some criteria rely heavily on subjective clinical Judgment, which can vary among healthcare providers. Future research should focus on refining existing criteria and developing more objective and universally applicable diagnostic tools to address these limitations. Incorporating advanced laboratory markers and modern imaging techniques may enhance diagnostic accuracy. Additionally, a standardized scoring system approach could improve clinical practice consistency. In conclusion, while current diagnostic criteria and scoring systems provide a foundation for identifying thyroid storm, their utility has shortcomings. Advancements in diagnostic methods and a collaborative effort to establish standardized criteria are imperative to enhance the accuracy and reliability of thyroid storm diagnosis, ultimately improving patient outcomes.

Plasmapheresis in thyrotoxicosis: a single-center case series.

BACKGROUND: Plasmapheresis represent an alternative therapeutic option for hyperthyroidism with thyroid storm or refractory cases. It provides a rapid decrease in plasma thyroid hormones and anti-thyroid antibodies. The aim of this paper was to report our single center's experience in managing particular situations of hyperthyroidism using apheresis. CASES PRESENTATION: The following case series describes three young African patients (two females, one male) aged 29, 37, and 25 years old, respectively, with Graves' disease who presented with drug ineffectiveness, drug-induced agranulocytosis, and thyroid storm with multi-organ failure. The three patients underwent plasmapheresis sessions leading to effective decline of thyroid hormone levels and offering a window for processing total thyroidectomy. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION: The standard management of thyrotoxicosis and thyroid storm was usually codified by the concomitant use of antithyroid medication, iodine, beta-blockers, and corticosteroids. This medical preparation can be effective in most cases. However, drug toxicity or ineffectiveness can limit the use of such therapeutics. Our paper supports the efficiency and safety of therapeutic plasma exchange in the preoperative management of thyrotoxicosis.

Complications related to thyroidectomy among patients with hyperthyroidism: Exploring the potential for ambulatory surgery.

BACKGROUND: Total thyroidectomy for hyperthyroidism is typically followed by overnight admission to monitor for complications including thyrotoxicosis. Outpatient thyroid surgery is increasingly common, but its safety in patients with hyperthyroidism has not been well studied. METHODS: This retrospective study reviewed 183 patients with hyperthyroidism who underwent total thyroidectomy from 2015 to 2022 at one urban, academic center. The main outcomes were rates of thyroid storm, surgical complications, and 30-day ED visits and readmissions. RESULTS: Among 183 patients with hyperthyroidism (mean age, 45 ± 14.5 years; 82.5% female), there were no cases of thyroid storm and complications included recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) palsy (7.0%), symptomatic hypocalcemia (4.4%), and hematoma (1.6%). ED visits were present in 1.1% and no patients were readmitted. CONCLUSION: Total thyroidectomy was not associated with thyroid storm and <6% of patients required inpatient management. Ambulatory total thyroidectomy for hyperthyroidism warrants further consideration through identification of predictive factors for postoperative complications.

Graves' Disease Exacerbation with Impending Thyroid Storm After SARS-CoV-2 Infection: A Case Report.

BACKGROUND Since the COVID-19 pandemic, several cases of COVID-19 have been linked to the development of autoimmune disorders, including of the thyroid. Graves' disease (GD) is a rare complication that can occur following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Reports have linked COVID-19 to new onset and exacerbation of GD. We present a case of a 42-year-old woman with a history of GD presenting with impending thyroid storm 3 weeks following a diagnosis of COVID-19. CASE REPORT A 42-year-old woman with a history of GD presented to the Emergency Department (ED) for an acute exacerbation of hyperthyroidism 3 weeks after SARS-CoV-2 infection was diagnosed on a home test. Symptoms included daily headaches, increased bilateral eye pressure, fatigue, muscle weakness, episodes of confusion and agitation, persistent heart palpitations, and goiter. Elevated free T4 of 5.57, free T3 of 15.68, total T3 of 4.43, and near-absent thyroid stimulating hormone were noted. The Burch-Wartofsky scale was 40, which was concerning for an impending thyroid storm; however, at the time of admission, she was not in a thyroid storm. Treatment included propylthiouracil, potassium iodide oral solution, and propranolol, with symptom improvement. Due to prior history of intolerance to antithyroid medications and recent exacerbation, a thyroidectomy was performed once she was in a euthyroid state. CONCLUSIONS Our case demonstrates the importance of recognizing COVID-19 as an etiology or a trigger for new onset or exacerbation of GD. Our case highlights that being vigilant to recognize the association between COVID-19 and thyroid abnormalities for early diagnosis and treatment is imperative.

Encephalitis as an initial presentation of type 2 amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis.

We report a case of a woman in her mid-20s presenting with encephalitis as the initial presentation of type 2 amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis (AIT). She was on amiodarone in view of a history of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Symptomatology included acute personality change and focal myoclonic jerks.Cerebrospinal fluid analysis showed a non-specific protein count elevation with negative microbiology, virology, autoimmune screen and onconeural antibodies. The electroencephalogram was consistent with a generalised cerebral dysrhythmia. An MRI of the head revealed symmetrical oedema within the motor cortices and a high T2 signal within the cerebellar dentate nuclei, with no restricted diffusion. Blood investigations confirmed thyrotoxicosis with negative antithyroid antibodies. She did not fulfil the criteria for a thyroid storm. Other possible causes of encephalitis were excluded.There was an excellent clinical, laboratory and radiological response to glucocorticoids, suggesting a diagnosis of steroid-responsive encephalitis secondary to type 2-AIT in the absence of a thyroid storm.

Risk factors for cardiogenic shock in thyroid storm: a retrospective and case-series study.

Aim: Thyroid storm (TS) occurs in 10% of thyrotoxicosis patients and 1% of TS patients experience cardiogenic shock (CS), which is associated with poor prognosis. Methods: This is a single institution, retrospective study in which 56 patients with TS were evaluated. Results: BMI (p = 0.002), history of heart failure (OR 8.33 [1.91, 36.28]; p = 0.004), pro-BNP elevation (p = 0.04), chest x-ray showing interstitial edema (OR 3.33 [1.48, 7.52]; p = 0.01) and Burch-Wartofsky score (62.5 vs 40; p = 0.004) showed association with CS. CS patients had increased length of stay (16.5 vs 4 days; p = 0.01) and higher in-hospital mortality (OR 24.5 [2.90, 207.29]; p < 0.001). Conclusion: These risk factors are useful to risk stratify TS patients on admission, institute therapy in a timely manner and decrease mortality.

Manejo del paciente con Hipertiroidismo en consulta externa de la Unidad Técnica de Endocrinología del Hospital Carlos Andrade Marín / Management of the patient with hyperthyroidism in the outpatient clinic of the Technical Unit of Endocrinology of the Endocrinology Technical Unit of the Carlos Andrade Marín Hospital

El hipertiroidismo es un trastorno caracterizado por el exceso de hormonas tiroideas. El déficit de yodo es un factor clave en dicha patología y en lugares con suficiencia del mismo se asocian a au-toinmunidad tiroidea. La prevalencia de hipertiroidismo mani-fiesto varía del 0,2% al 1,3% en áreas con suficiencia de yodo, sin embargo, esto puede variar en cada país por diferencias en umbrales de diagnóstico, sensibilidad de ensayo y población se-leccionada. Un reporte de The Third National Health and Nutri-tion Examination Survey (NHANES III) mostró que el hiperti-roidismo manifiesto se presenta en 0,7% de la población general e hipertiroidismo subclínico en el 1,7%1,2.En incidencia, la patología se asocia con la suplementación de yodo, con la mayor frecuencia en áreas de deficiencias, por au-mento de nódulos tiroideos en la población anciana, teniendo a regiones de áreas montañosas como América del Sur, África Central y suroeste de Asia dentro de este grupo. Un meta aná-lisis de estudios europeos mostró una incidencia general de 50 casos por 100000 personas/años1. En Ecuador, según los datos del Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos (INEC) del 2017, se reportaron 157 casos de hipertiroidismo, de los cuales la En-fermedad de Graves (EG) fue la causa más común, seguida por el bocio multinodular tóxico (BMNT) y finalmente el adenoma tóxico (AT) con una incidencia de 61 %, 24 % y 14 % respecti-vamente3.Los pacientes con esta patología tienen aumento de riesgo com-plicaciones cardiovasculares y mortalidad por todas las causas, siendo falla cardíaca uno de sus principales desenlaces, así el diagnóstico precoz evita estos eventos, principalmente en pobla-ción de edad avanzada.El presente protocolo se ha realizado para un correcto trata-miento de esta patología en el Hospital de Especialidades Carlos Andrade Marín (HECAM).

Hyperthyroidism is a disorder characterized by an excess of thyroid hormones. Iodine deficiency is a key factor in this pa-thology and in places with iodine deficiency it is associated with thyroid autoimmunity. The prevalence of overt hyperthyroidism varies from 0,2% to 1,3% in iodine-sufficient areas; however, this may vary from country to country due to differences in diag-nostic thresholds, assay sensitivity, and selected population. A report from The Third National Health and Nutrition Examina-tion Survey (NHANES III) showed that overt hyperthyroidism occurs in 0,7% of the general population and subclinical hyper-thyroidism in 1,7%1,2.In incidence, the pathology is associated with iodine supplemen-tation, with the highest frequency in areas of deficiencies, due to increased thyroid nodules in the elderly population, having regions of mountainous areas such as South America, Central Africa and Southwest Asia within this group. A meta-analysis of European studies showed an overall incidence of 50 cases per 100000 person/years1. In Ecuador, according to data from the National Institute of Statistics and Census (INEC) in 2017, 157 cases of hyperthyroidism were reported, of which, Graves' di-sease (GD) was the most common cause, followed by toxic mul-tinodular goiter (BMNT) and finally toxic adenoma (TA) with an incidence of 61 %, 24 % and 14 % respectively3.Patients with this pathology have an increased risk of cardiovas-cular complications and all-cause mortality, with heart failure being one of the main outcomes, so early diagnosis avoids these events, mainly in the elderly population.The present protocol has been carried out for the correct treat-ment of this pathology at the Carlos Andrade Marín Specialties Hospital (HECAM).

Thyrotoxicosis.

Hyperthyroidism is a diagnosis existing along a spectrum of severity. Patients present with a variety of signs and symptoms: tachycardia, elevated heart rate, anxiety, changes in mental status, gastrointestinal disturbances, and hyperthermia. Management of subclinical hyperthyroidism and thyrotoxicosis without thyroid storm is heavily dependent on outpatient evaluation. Thyroid storm is the most severe form of hyperthyroidism with the highest mortality. Management of thyroid storm follows a stepwise approach, with resuscitation and detection of the precipitating cause being paramount. Special attention should be paid to cardiac function in patients with thyroid storm before treatment, as these patients may develop cardiac collapse.

The effect of plasma exchange on serum levels of lacosamide: A case report.

PURPOSE: We describe the case of a 22-year-old male who developed thyroid storm necessitating therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE). The patient's past medical history was complicated by epilepsy, for which he took lacosamide. Little evidence was available to guide lacosamide dosing during TPE. Because of an exacerbation of the patient's underlying epilepsy in the context of the thyroid storm, we conducted therapeutic medication monitoring of lacosamide concentrations to guide management. SUMMARY: We arranged for measurement of the lacosamide concentration immediately before TPE (5.1 µg/mL) and 2.5 hours after the initial measurement (3.4 µg/mL) to determine the amount of lacosamide removed by TPE. Utilizing population pharmacokinetic parameters, we calculated the expected concentration and compared this to the measured concentration. The difference between these values was used to determine the percentage removed via TPE compared to the expected post-TPE concentration. We found that one TPE session removed an additional 20% of serum lacosamide. CONCLUSION: TPE appeared to remove an additional 20% of lacosamide when compared to the expected post-TPE concentration.

Thyroid Storm-Induced Refractory Multiorgan Failure Managed by Veno-Arterial Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation Support: A Case-Series.

BACKGROUND Severe hyperthyroidism, including thyroid storm, can be precipitated by acute events, such as surgery, trauma, infection, medications, parturition, and noncompliance or stoppage of antithyroid drugs. Thyroid storm is one of the serious endocrinal emergencies that prompts early diagnosis and treatment. Early occurrence of multiorgan failure is an ominous sign that requires aggressive treatment, including the initiation of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) support as a bridge to stability and definitive surgical treatment. Most adverse events occur after failure of medical therapy. CASE REPORT We described 4 cases of fulminating thyroid storm that were complicated with multiple organ failure and cardiac arrest. The patients, 3 female and 1 male, were between 39 and 46 years old. All patients underwent ECMO support, with planned thyroidectomy. Three survived to discharge and 1 died after prolonged cardiac arrest and sepsis. All patients underwent peripheral, percutaneous, intensivist-led cannulation for VA-ECMO with no complications. CONCLUSIONS Early recognition of thyroid storm, identification of the cause, and proper treatment and support in the intensive care unit is essential. Patients with thyroid storm and cardiovascular collapse, who failed to improve with conventional supportive measures, had the worst prognosis, and ECMO support should be considered as a bridge until the effective therapy takes effect. Our case series showed that, in patients with life-threatening thyroid storm, VA-ECMO can be used as bridge to stabilization, definitive surgical intervention, and postoperative endocrine management. Interprofessional team management is essential, and early implantation of VA-ECMO is likely beneficial in patients with thyroid storm after failure of conventional management.

Anaesthetic management of thyroid storm in a patient with Friederich's ataxia. A case report.

A 26-year-old patient with Friederich's ataxia with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy undergoing total thyroidectomy due to persistent amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis (despite high doses of antithyroid drugs and corticosteroids), presented an intraoperative episode suggestive of thyroid storm. Thyroid storm is an endocrine emergency that is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Early diagnosis and treatment, which is of vital importance to improve survival, includes symptomatic treatment, treatment of cardiovascular, neurological, and/or hepatic manifestations and thyrotoxicosis, measures to suppress or avoid triggering stimuli, and definitive treatment.

Surgical Treatment of Hyperthyroidism Can Be Performed Safely Before a Euthyroid State is Achieved.

Background: The 2016 American Thyroid Association guidelines recommend that hyperthyroid patients should be euthyroid before thyroidectomy. This recommendation is based on low-quality evidence. In this retrospective cohort study, we compare peri- and post-operative outcomes of patients with hyperthyroidism who were controlled versus uncontrolled at the time of thyroidectomy. Methods: A retrospective cohort study was performed on 275 hyperthyroidism patients at a single institution from December 2015 to November 2022. Patients were defined as hyperthyroid if they had a diagnosis of hyperthyroidism with at least one suppressed thyrotropin (TSH). Patients were considered uncontrolled if triiodothyronine or thyroxine (T4) was elevated immediately before surgery. Patient demographics, perioperative data, and postoperative outcomes were compared with Chi-square and Wilcoxon Rank Sum tests, as appropriate. Results: Of the 275 patients, 84.3% were women and 51.3% were uncontrolled at time of surgery. Controlled patients had higher median [interquartile range] TSH (0.4 [0.0, 2.4] mIU/L vs. 0.0 [0.0, 0.0] mIU/L, p < 0.001) and lower free T4 (fT4) (0.9 [0.7, 1.1] ng/dL vs. 3.1 [1.9, 4.4] ng/dL, p < 0.001), respectively. Uncontrolled patients were more likely to be diagnosed with Grave's disease (85.1% vs. 67.9%, p < 0.001) and to undergo surgery due to medication intolerance (12.1% vs. 6%) or history of thyroid storm (6.4% vs. 1.5%) (p = 0.008). Uncontrolled patients were also more likely to take a larger number of preoperative medications (2.3 vs. 1.4, p < 0.001). No patient in either group experienced thyroid storm precipitated by surgery. Controlled patients had shorter operative times (7.3% vs. 19.8% <1 hour, p < 0.014) and decreased median estimated blood loss (15.0 [5.0, 30.0] mL vs. 20.0 [10.0, 50.0] mL, p = 0.002). Both groups experienced similar, low rates of postoperative complications, apart from an increase in temporary hypocalcemia in the uncontrolled group (13.4% vs. 4.7%, p = 0.013). Conclusion: Our study is the largest to date examining the postoperative outcomes of patients with uncontrolled hyperthyroidism who undergo thyroidectomy. Our results affirm that thyroidectomy in actively thyrotoxic patients is safe and will not precipitate thyroid storm.

High risk and low prevalence diseases: Thyroid storm.

INTRODUCTION: Thyroid storm is a rare but serious condition that carries a high rate of morbidity and even mortality. OBJECTIVE: This review highlights the pearls and pitfalls of thyroid storm, including presentation, diagnosis, and management in the emergency department (ED) based on current evidence. DISCUSSION: Thyroid storm is a challenging condition to diagnose and manage in the ED. It is characterized by exaggerated signs and symptoms of thyrotoxicosis and evidence of multiorgan decompensation, usually occurring in the presence of an inciting trigger. Clinical features of thyroid storm may include fever, tachycardia, signs of congestive heart failure, vomiting/diarrhea, hepatic dysfunction, and central nervous system disturbance. There are several mimics including sympathomimetic overdose, substance use disorders, alcohol withdrawal, acute pulmonary edema, aortic dissection, heat stroke, serotonin syndrome, and sepsis/septic shock. Ultimately, the key to diagnosis is considering the disease. While laboratory assessment can assist, there is no single laboratory value that will establish a diagnosis of thyroid storm. Clinical criteria include the Burch-Wartofsky point scale and Japan Thyroid Association diagnostic criteria. ED treatment focuses on diagnosing and managing the trigger; resuscitation; administration of steroids, thionamides, iodine, and cholestyramine; and treatment of hyperthermia and agitation. Beta blockers should be administered in the absence of severe heart failure. The emergency clinician should be prepared for rapid clinical deterioration and employ a multidisciplinary approach to treatment that involves critical care and endocrinology specialists. CONCLUSIONS: An understanding of thyroid storm can assist emergency clinicians in diagnosing and managing this potentially deadly disease.