Trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid- and caloric restriction-mediated upregulation of CNDP2 expression in white adipose tissue in rodents, with implications in feeding and obesity.

Certain dietary supplements such as trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid (t10-c12 CLA), and diets including caloric-restricted diets can promote weight loss in certain animal models and humans. A very recent study showed that exercise induces the biosynthesis of N-lactoyl-phenylalanine (Lac-Phe), a circulating signaling metabolite that suppresses feeding and obesity selectively in mice fed with a high-fat diet, and that cytosolic nonspecific dipeptidase 2 (CNDP2) catalyzes the synthesis of Lac-Phe from lactate (Lac) and phenylalanine (Phe). In this in silico study, we found that two anti-obesity strategies, namely treatment with t10-c12 CLA and caloric restriction, increase CNDP2 expression in adipose tissue in mice and rats, respectively. We showed that the effect of t10-c12 CLA on CNDP2 expression might be isomer-specific. We hypothesized that these t10-c12 CLA treatment- or caloric-restricted diet-mediated increases in CNDP2 expression might contribute to their anti-obesity effects, possibly due to increased Lac-Phe levels and ultimately due to Lac-Phe-mediated decreases in daily food consumption, reduced body weight and fat mass. A better understanding of the regulation of CNDP2 expression in diverse tissues in mammals might be of high importance in the treatment of obesity, considering its role in the synthesis of Lac-Phe, a metabolite that decreases body weight and fat mass selectively in mice fed with a high-fat diet. Further research is needed to find out how these two strategies lead to the upregulation of CNDP2 expression and whether this increased expression of CNDP2 might translate to reduced body weight and fat mass through higher Lac-Phe levels.

Extracellular Prolidase (PEPD) Induces Anabolic Processes through EGFR, ß1-integrin, and IGF-1R Signaling Pathways in an Experimental Model of Wounded Fibroblasts.

The role of prolidase (PEPD) as a ligand of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) was studied in an experimental model of wound healing in cultured fibroblasts. The cells were treated with PEPD (1-100 nM) and analysis of cell viability, proliferation, migration, collagen biosynthesis, PEPD activity, and the expressions of EGFR, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), and ß1-integrin receptor including downstream signaling proteins were performed. It has been found that PEPD stimulated proliferation and migration of fibroblasts via activation of the EGFR-downstream PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. Simultaneously, PEPD stimulated the expression of ß1-integrin and IGF-1 receptors and proteins downstream to these receptors such as FAK, Grb2, and ERK1/2. Collagen biosynthesis was increased in control and "wounded" fibroblasts under PEPD treatment. The data suggest that PEPD-induced EGFR signaling may serve as a new attempt to therapy wound healing.

Prolidase Stimulates Proliferation and Migration through Activation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signaling Pathway in Human Keratinocytes.

Recent reports have indicated prolidase (PEPD) as a ligand of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Since this receptor is involved in the promotion of cell proliferation, growth, and migration, we aimed to investigate whether prolidase may participate in wound healing in vitro. All experiments were performed in prolidase-treated human keratinocytes assessing cell vitality, proliferation, and migration. The expression of downstream signaling proteins induced by EGFR, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), transforming growth factor ß1 (TGF-ß1), and ß1-integrin receptors were evaluated by Western immunoblotting and immunocytochemical staining. To determine collagen biosynthesis and prolidase activity radiometric and colorimetric methods were used, respectively. Proline content was determined by applying the liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. We found that prolidase promoted the proliferation and migration of keratinocytes through stimulation of EGFR-downstream signaling pathways in which the PI3K/Akt/mTOR axis was involved. Moreover, PEPD upregulated the expression of ß1-integrin and IGF-1 receptors and their downstream proteins. Proline concentration and collagen biosynthesis were increased in HaCaT cells under prolidase treatment. Since extracellular prolidase as a ligand of EGFR induced cell growth, migration, and collagen biosynthesis in keratinocytes, it may represent a potential therapeutic approach for the treatment of skin wounds.

Overexpression of Prolidase Induces Autophagic Death in MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cells.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Proline availability for proline dehydrogenase/proline oxidase (PRODH/POX) may represent switching mechanism between PRODH/POX-dependent apoptosis and autophagy. The aim of the study was to evaluate the impact of overexpression of prolidase (proline releasing enzyme) on apoptosis/autophagy in breast cancer MCF-7 cells. METHODS: The model of MCF-7 cells with prolidase overexpression (MCF-7PL) was obtained. In order to targeting proline for PRODH/POX-dependent pathways substrate for prolidase, glycyl-proline (GP) was provided and proline utilization for collagen biosynthesis was blocked using 2-methoxyestradiol (MOE). Cell viability was determined using Nucleo-Counter NC-3000. The activity of prolidase was determined by colorimetric assay. DNA, collagen and total protein biosynthesis were determined by radiometric method. Expression of proteins was assessed by Western blot and immunofluorescence bioimaging. Concentration of proline was analyzed by liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry. RESULTS: Prolidase overexpression in MCF-7PL cells contributed to 10-fold increase in the enzyme activity, 3-fold increase in cytoplasmic proline level and decrease in cell viability and DNA biosynthesis compared to wild type MCF-7 cells. In MCF-7PL cells MOE and GP significantly decreased the number of living cells. MOE inhibited DNA biosynthesis in both cell lines while GP evoked inhibitory effect on the process only in MCF-7PL cells. In both cell lines, MOE or MOE+GP inhibited DNA and collagen biosynthesis. Although GP in MCF-7 cells stimulated collagen biosynthesis, it inhibited the process in MCF-7PL cells. The effects of studied compounds in MCF-7PL cells were accompanied by increase in the expression of Atg7, LC3A/B, Beclin-1, HIF-1α and decrease in the expression of PRODH/POX, active caspases-3 and -9. CONCLUSION: The data suggest that overexpression of prolidase in MCF-7 cells contributes to increase in intracellular proline concentration and PRODH/POX-dependent autophagic cell death.

Endothelium-Mediated Action of Analogues of the Endogenous Neuropeptide Kyotorphin (Tyrosil-Arginine): Mechanistic Insights from Permeation and Effects on Microcirculation.

Kyotorphin (KTP) is an endogenous peptide with analgesic properties when administered into the central nervous system (CNS). Its amidated form (l-Tyr-l-Arg-NH2; KTP-NH2) has improved analgesic efficacy after systemic administration, suggesting blood-brain barrier (BBB) crossing. KTP-NH2 also has anti-inflammatory action impacting on microcirculation. In this work, selected derivatives of KTP-NH2 were synthesized to improve lipophilicity and resistance to enzymatic degradation while introducing only minor changes in the chemical structure: N-terminal methylation and/or use of d amino acid residues. Intravital microscopy data show that KTP-NH2 having a d-Tyr residue, KTP-NH2-DL, efficiently decreases the number of leukocyte rolling in a murine model of inflammation induced by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS): down to 46% after 30 min with 96 µM KTP-NH2-DL. The same molecule has lower ability to permeate membranes (relative permeability of 0.38) and no significant activity in a behavioral test which evaluates thermal nociception (hot-plate test). On the contrary, methylated isomers at 96 µM increase leukocyte rolling up to nearly 5-fold after 30 min, suggesting a proinflammatory activity. They have maximal ability to permeate membranes (relative permeability of 0.8) and induce long-lasting antinociception.

An in vitro and in vivo evaluation of the efficacy of recombinant human liver prolidase as a catalytic bioscavenger of chemical warfare nerve agents.

In this study, we determined the ability of recombinant human liver prolidase to hydrolyze nerve agents in vitro and its ability to afford protection in vivo in mice. Using adenovirus containing the human liver prolidase gene, the enzyme was over expressed by 200- to 300-fold in mouse liver and purified to homogeneity by affinity and gel filtration chromatography. The purified enzyme hydrolyzed sarin, cyclosarin and soman with varying rates of hydrolysis. The most efficient hydrolysis was with sarin, followed by soman and by cyclosarin {apparent kcat/Km [(1.9 ± 0.3), (1.7 ± 0.2), and (0.45 ± 0.04)] × 10(5 )M(-1 )min(-1), respectively}; VX and tabun were not hydrolyzed by the recombinant enzyme. The enzyme hydrolyzed P (+) isomers faster than the P (-) isomers. The ability of recombinant human liver prolidase to afford 24 hour survival against a cumulative dose of 2 × LD50 of each nerve agent was investigated in mice. Compared to mice injected with a control virus, mice injected with the prolidase expressing virus contained (29 ± 7)-fold higher levels of the enzyme in their blood on day 5. Challenging these mice with two consecutive 1 × LD50 doses of sarin, cyclosarin, and soman resulted in the death of all animals within 5 to 8 min from nerve agent toxicity. In contrast, mice injected with the adenovirus expressing mouse butyrylcholinesterase, an enzyme which is known to afford protection in vivo, survived multiple 1 × LD50 challenges of these nerve agents and displayed no signs of toxicity. These results suggest that, while prolidase can hydrolyze certain G-type nerve agents in vitro, the enzyme does not offer 24 hour protection against a cumulative dose of 2 × LD50 of G-agents in mice in vivo.

Identification of prolidase as a high affinity ligand of the ErbB2 receptor and its regulation of ErbB2 signaling and cell growth.

ErbB2, an important membrane-bound receptor tyrosine kinase, was discovered nearly 30 years ago, but a natural ligand has never been found previously. ErbB2 is also an important oncogene and anticancer target, and its overexpression in cancer is associated with poor disease prognosis. Here, we report that human prolidase (PEPD) is a high affinity ligand of ErbB2 and binds as a homodimer to subdomain 3 in the extracellular domain of this receptor. In ErbB2-overexpressing cells, both ErbB2 monomers and activated dimers exist. PEPD bound to ErbB2 monomers relatively slowly but caused ErbB2 dimerization, ErbB2 phosphorylation and downstream signaling. In contrast, PEPD bound rapidly to ErbB2 homodimers and rapidly silenced ErbB2 dimer-Src signaling, a key oncogenic pathway of ErbB2, by disrupting the association of Src with ErbB2. PEPD also caused pronounced ErbB2 depletion, resulting from ErbB2 internalization and degradation. Moreover, PEPD strongly inhibited the DNA synthesis, anchorage-independent growth and invasion and migration of cells that overexpressed ErbB2 but had no effect on cells without ErbB2 overexpression. Cells became sensitized to PEPD upon achieving stable ErbB2 overexpression. Thus, the impact of PEPD on ErbB2 is predominantly inhibitory, and PEPD targets cells addicted to ErbB2. PEPD is also a dipeptidase, but its enzymatic function is not involved in ErbB2 modulation. These findings revise our understanding of ErbB2 and PEPD and may be especially important for combating ErbB2-positive cancers.

Progress in the development of enzyme-based nerve agent bioscavengers.

Acetylcholinesterase is the physiological target for acute toxicity of nerve agents. Attempts to protect acetylcholinesterase from phosphylation by nerve agents, is currently achieved by reversible inhibitors that transiently mask the enzyme active site. This approach either protects only peripheral acetylcholinesterase or may cause side effects. Thus, an alternative strategy consists in scavenging nerve agents in the bloodstream before they can reach acetylcholinesterase. Pre- or post-exposure administration of bioscavengers, enzymes that neutralize and detoxify organophosphorus molecules, is one of the major developments of new medical counter-measures. These enzymes act either as stoichiometric or catalytic bioscavengers. Human butyrylcholinesterase is the leading stoichiometric bioscavenger. Current efforts are devoted to its mass production with care to pharmacokinetic properties of the final product for extended lifetime. Development of specific reactivators of phosphylated butyrylcholinesterase, or variants with spontaneous reactivation activity is also envisioned for rapid in situ regeneration of the scavenger. Human paraoxonase 1 is the leading catalytic bioscavenger under development. Research efforts focus on improving its catalytic efficiency toward the most toxic isomers of nerve agents, by means of directed evolution-based strategies. Human prolidase appears to be another promising human enzyme. Other non-human efficient enzymes like bacterial phosphotriesterases or squid diisopropylfluorophosphatase are also considered though their intrinsic immunogenic properties remain challenging for use in humans. Encapsulation, PEGylation and other modifications are possible solutions to address this problem as well as that of their limited lifetime. Finally, gene therapy for in situ generation and delivery of bioscavengers is for the far future, but its proof of concept has been established.

In search of a catalytic bioscavenger for the prophylaxis of nerve agent toxicity.

A novel approach for treating organophosphorus (OP) poisoning is the use of enzymes, both stoichiometric and catalytic, as bioscavengers to sequester these compounds in circulation before they reach their physiological targets. Human serum butyrylcholinesterase and a recombinant form of this enzyme produced in the milk of transgenic goats have completed Phase I clinical trials as stoichiometric bioscavengers for the protection of humans against OP nerve agents. However, a major limitation of the first generation bioscavenger is the 1:1 stoichiometry between the enzyme and the OP. Therefore, efforts are underway to develop the second generation catalytic bioscavenger, which will neutralize/hydrolyze multiple OP molecules. To avoid any complications related to adverse immune reactions, three enzymes from human (Hu) sources are being considered for development as catalytic bioscavengers: (1) prolidase; (2) paraoxonase 1 (PON1); (3) senescence marker protein-30 (SMP-30). Towards this effort, native or recombinant (r) forms of candidate catalytic bioscavengers were isolated and characterized for their ability to hydrolyze G-type nerve agents at concentrations of 10muM and 1mM. Results show that mammalian enzymes were significantly less efficient at hydrolyzing nerve agents as compared to bacterial organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH) and organophosphorus acid anhydrolase (OPAA). Recombinant Hu prolidase was the most efficient and the only mammalian enzyme that hydrolyzed all four G-type nerve agents. On the other hand, both rHu PON1 and Mo SMP-30 showed 10-fold lower activity towards sarin compared to rHu prolidase and did not hydrolyze tabun. Based on these results, Hu prolidase appears to be the most promising candidate for further development: (1) it can be easily expressed in E. coli; (2) of the three candidate enzymes, it is the only enzyme that hydrolyzes all four G-type agents. Efforts to improve the catalytic efficiency of this enzyme towards OP nerve agents are underway.

Biological activity of novel synthetic derivatives of carnosine.

Two novel derivatives of carnosine--(S)-trolox-L-carnosine (STC) and (R)-trolox-L-carnosine (RTC) are characterized in terms of their antioxidant and membrane-stabilizing activities as well as their resistance to serum carnosinase. STC and RTC were synthesized by N-acylation of L-carnosine with (S)- and (R)-trolox, respectively. STC and RTC were found to react more efficiently with 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH) and protect serum lipoproteins from Fe(2+)-induced oxidation more successfully than carnosine and trolox. At the same time, STC, RTC and trolox suppressed oxidative hemolysis of red blood cells (RBC) less efficiently than carnosine taken in the same concentration. When oxidative stress was induced in suspension of cerebellum granule cells by their incubation with N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), or hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), both STC and RTC more efficiently decreased accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) than carnosine and trolox. Both STC and RTC were resistant toward hydrolytic degradation by human serum carnosinase. STC and RTC were concluded to demonstrate higher antioxidant capacity and better ability to prevent cerebellar neurons from ROS accumulation than their precursors, carnosine and trolox.

Ex vivo evaluation of prolidase loaded chitosan nanoparticles for the enzyme replacement therapy.

Prolidase loaded chitosan nanoparticles were set up in order to suggest an innovative therapeutic approach for Prolidase Deficiency (PD), a rare autosomal inherited disorder of the connective tissue. The satisfactory drug loading efficiency (42.6+/-2.1%) as well as the suitable physical characteristics (mean diameter of 365.5+/-35.1 nm and a positive zeta-potential of 17.94+/-0.12 mV) was achieved. In order to verify the compatibility of the chitosan nanoparticles with cells, the influence of the nanoparticles on the growth and the viability (MTT assay) of cultured skin fibroblasts were determined: the nanoparticles showed a good biocompatibility up to 5 microg of chitosan/10,000 fibroblasts. Uptake of chitosan nanoparticles by fibroblasts was verified by confocal microscopy using FITC-labelled chitosan nanoparticles. The ex vivo experiments were performed by incubating different amounts of prolidase loaded chitosan nanoparticles with skin human fibroblasts from PD patients for scheduled times. The restored prolidase activity was quantitatively monitored by a capillary electrophoretic method and confirmed by cells morphological observations. Standing from the nanoparticles internalization, the enzymatic activity was progressively restored reaching the best value (about 66%) after 5 days of co-incubation. Moreover, prolidase loaded chitosan nanoparticles permitted to restore prolidase activity in PD fibroblasts for a prolonged period of time (8 days).

Prolidase as a prodrug converting enzyme. III. Synthesis of proline analogues of melphalan and theirs susceptibility to the action of prolidase.

The feasibility to targeting prolidase as an antineoplastic prodrug-converting enzyme has been examined. The synthesis of proline analogues of melphalan (well known antineoplastic agent) conjugated through imido-bond (potential target for prolidase action) has been performed. One of the compounds, N-[[[[(S)-carboxy]pyrrolidin-1-yl]carbonyl]methyl]-4-[bis(2-chloro ethyl) amino]-2-phenylalanine, was found as very good prolidase substrate with susceptibility over 2 fold higher compared to standard, endogenous its substrate--Gly-L-Pro. It suggests that targeting of prolidase as a proline analogue of melphalan-converting enzyme may serve as a novel strategy in therapy of neoplastic diseases.

[In vitro antibacterial activity of meropenem, a new carbapenem: European data]. / Attività antibattterica in vitro di Meropenem, un nuovo carbapenemico: dati europei.

Meropenem is a new DHP-I stable carbapenem with a very promising microbiological, pharmacokinetic and clinical profile. The antibacterial activity of this new agent has been assessed in vitro against 8741 aerobic and 854 anaerobic strains reflecting current incidence and epidemiology in Italy, France, Germany, Spain, Switzerland and United Kingdom. Comparator agents were imipenem, ceftriaxone, vancomycin, ciprofloxacin gentamicin and amikacin. The results of this study show that meropenem has a spectrum of antibacterial activity which embraces the vast majority of clinically significant Gram-positive and Gram-negative aerobes and anaerobes. This is due in part to excellent stability to chromosomal or plasmid mediated beta-lactamases including those which hydrolyse current cephalosporins. Data from the Italian study identified meropenem as the most potent agent against all Enterobacteriaceae, with the exception of Proteus species with were most susceptible to ciprofloxacin. Moreover, meropenem was 10 times more active than the other drugs against Haemophilus and Neisseria and was active against all the anaerobic strains. Conversely, staphylococci and enterococci were more susceptible to imipenem. Overall, these European data showed that meropenem was the most powerful drug against Enterobacteriaceae and it also was the most effective drug tested against the Italian and French Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains. Meropenem was less effective than imipenem or vancomycin against Enterococcus stains but had similar activity to imipen against anaerobes. Based on this microbiological profile, the use of meropenem is appropriate in the empirical treatment of serious infections, including those caused by multiple pathogens.

Antimicrobial activity of SM-17466, a novel carbapenem antibiotic with potent activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

The in vitro and in vivo antibacterial activities of SM-17466, a new 1 beta-methyl carbapenem, were evaluated against a wide range of clinical bacterial isoaltes and compared with the activities of meropenem, imipenem, vancomycin, and arbekacin. SM-17466 had a broad spectrum of action against gram-positive bacteria, showing especially potent activity against methicillin-resistant staphylococci. The MICs of SM-17466, meropenem, imipenem, vancomycin, and arbekacin at which 90% of clinical isolates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus were inhibited were 3.13, 50, 100, 1.56, and 3.13 micrograms/ml, respectively. This activity of SM-17466 was almost equivalent to those of the antibiotics used for the treatment of infections caused by this organism. SM-17466 also showed bactericidal activity against methicillin-resistant S. aureus. In contrast, SM-17466 was less active against gram-negative bacteria, especially against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, compared with the other carbapenems; however, of the carbapenems, SM-17466 exhibited the highest activity against Haemophilus influenzae and Bacteriodes fragilis. SM-17466, at a 50% inhibitory concentration of less than 1 microgram/ml, bound to penicillin-binding proteins 1 to 4 in methicillin-susceptible S. aureus and also had good binding to penicillin-binding protein 2' in a methicillin-resistant strain (50% inhibitory concentration, 5.9 micrograms/ml). This high affinity, which was 10 and 20 times greater than those for meropenem and imipenem, respectively, was reflected in the potent activity of SM-17466 against methicillin-resistant S. aureus. SM-17466 demonstrated excellent in vivo efficacy against methicillin-susceptible and -resistant S. aureus strains in a mouse peritoneal infection model: the efficacy of SM-17466 against methicillin-resistant strains was equal to or one-third that of vancomycin. This activity was comparable to the in vitro activity of SM-17466. The subcutaneous injection of SM-17466 in mice revealed that the half-life of SM-17466 in serum was about 18 min, intermediate between those of vancomycin and arbekacin and 1.5-fold that of imipenem-cilastatin. SM-17466 was resistant to hydrolysis by swine renal dehydropeptidase I, to an extent comparable to the resistance shown by meropenem.

Microbial phosphorylation of the OA-6129 group of carbapenem compounds.

The OA-6129 group of carbapenem antibiotics were phosphorylated with ATP by Brevibacterium ammoniagenes at the primary hydroxyl group of the C-3 pantetheinyl side chain. The phosphorylation resulted in the reduced antimicrobial activity against some Gram-positive bacteria, and the improved activity against some Gram-negative microbes. The increased resistance of the OA-6129 carbapenems due to phosphorylation was significant to mouse renal dehydropeptidase and moderate to the human enzyme. OA-6129A and B2 phosphates were found to be unsusceptible to A933 acylase, while OA-6129A and B2 were depantothenylated.

Pharmacological studies on carbapenem antibiotics. II. Isolation of a PS-5-inactivating factor from the rat kidney.

A factor responsible for the in vivo metabolism of PS-5 was isolated from the microsomal fraction of the rat kidney. This factor, which did not attack penicillins and cephalosporins, was enzymologically identified with particle-bound renal dipeptidase. Under the action of this factor, PS-5 was inactivated to give three products designated PS-5D I, PS-5D II and PS-5D III.

Interconversion of leukotrienes catalyzed by purified gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase: concomitant formation of leukotriene D4 and gamma-glutamyl amino acids.

The reversible conversion of leukotriene C4 to leukotriene D4 and of the latter to leukotriene E4 were studied with highly purified homogeneous preparations of gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, dipeptidase, and aminopeptidase M. The conversion of leukotriene C4 to leukotriene D4, catalyzed by gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, is significantly more rapid when carried out in the presence of an amino acid mixture a closely approximating that found in blood plasma and is accompanied by gamma-glutamyl amino acid formation. Because gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase is bound to the external surface of cell membranes and thus is readily accessible to plasma amino acids, it appears that conversion of leukotriene C4 to leukotriene D4 under physiological conditions is coupled with the formation of gamma-glutamyl amino acids. The apparent Km value for leukotriene C4 in this reaction is about 6 X 10(-6) M, a value close to that found for glutathione. Conversion of leukotriene D4 to leukotriene C4 is effectively catalyzed by gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase in the presence of relatively low concentrations of glutathione. The conversion of leukotriene D4 to leukotriene E4 is catalyzed much more rapidly by renal dipeptidase than by renal aminopeptidase M. Incubation of leukotriene E4 with gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase and glutathione leads to formation of a compound with the properties of gamma-glutamyl leukotriene E4; this reaction is analogous to that shown previously in which gamma-glutamyl cystine is formed by transpeptidation between glutathione and cystine.